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Second and Foreign Language Teaching Methods
This module provides a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and commonly used approaches and methods for teaching a second or foreign language. Each approach or method has an articulated theoretical orientation and a collection of strategies and learning activities designed to reach the specified goals and achieve the learning outcomes of the teaching and learning processes.
Jill Kerper Mora
The following approaches and methods are described below:
Total Physical Response Approach
Click here for a link to an overview of the history of second or foreign language teaching.
Theoretical Orientations to L2 Methods & Approaches
There are four general orientations among modern second-language methods and approaches:
1. STRUCTURAL/LINGUISTIC: Based on beliefs about the structure of language and descriptive or contrastive linguistics. Involves isolation of grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 taught either deductively or inductively in a predetermined sequence. Often involves much meta-linguistic content or "learning about the language" in order to learn the language.
2. COGNITIVE: Based on theories of learning applied specifically to second language learning. Focus is on the learning strategies that are compatible with the learners own style. L2 content is selected according to concepts and techniques that facilitate generalizations about the language, memorization and "competence" leading to "performance".
3. AFFECTIVE/INTERPERSONAL: Focuses on the psychological and affective pre-dispositions of the learner that enhance or inhibit learning. Emphasizes interaction among and between teacher and students and the atmosphere of the learning situation as well as students' motivation for learning. Based on concepts adapted from counseling and social psychology.
4. FUNCTIONAL/COMMUNICATIVE: Based on theories of language acquisition, often referred to as the "natural" approach, and on the use of language for communication. Encompasses multiple aspects of the communicative act, with language structures selected according to their utility in achieving a communicative purpose. Instruction is concerned with the input students receive, comprehension of the "message" of language and student involvement at the students' level of competence.
The Grammar-Translation Approach
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
The Direct Approach
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
The Reading Approach
This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill.Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.
The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
--tomorrow
--in the cafeteria tomorrow
--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
Community Language Learning
Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.
This methodology created by Charles Curran is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.
The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:
STAGE 1
The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.
STAGE 2
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and hope.
STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. Same as stage 4.
2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.
3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.
The Silent Way
Gattegno, C. (1972).Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York City: Educational Solutions.
Procedures
This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following:
To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds.
To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.
Materials
The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include:
A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets.
The Communicative Approach
What is communicative competence?
- Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve one's communicative purpose.
- Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between meaning between two or more persons sharing the same symbolic system.
- Communicative competence applies to both spoken and written language.
- Communicative competence is context specific based on the situation, the role of the participants and the appropriate choices of register and style. For example: The variation of language used by persons in different jobs or professions can be either formal or informal. The use of jargon or slang may or may not be appropriate.
- Communicative competence represents a shift in focus from the grammatical to the communicative properties of the language; i.e. the functions of language and the process of discourse.
- Communicative competence requires the mastery of the production and comprehension of communicative acts or speech acts that are relevant to the needs of the L2 learner.
Characteristics of the Communicative Classroom
- The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2. Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework.
- The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.
- Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or a mixture of the two.
- The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a message that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful communication.
- The students receive comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment and are personally involved in class activities. Comprehensible input has the following major components:
a. a context
b. gestures and other body language cues
c. a message to be comprehended
d. a knowledge of the meaning of key lexical items in the utterance
Stages of language acquisition in the communicative approach
1. Comprehension or pre-production
a. Total physical response
b. Answer with names--objects, students, pictures
2. Early speech production
a. Yes-no questions
b. Either-or questions
c. Single/two-word answers
d. Open-ended questions
e. Open dialogs
f. Interviews
3. Speech emerges
a. Games and recreational activities
b. Content activities
c. Humanistic-affective activities
d. Information-problem-solving activities
Functional-Notional Approach
Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the situation, and c. the topic being discussed.
A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:
A. The persons taking part in the speech act
B. The place where the conversation occurs
C. The time the speech act is taking place
D. The topic or activity that is being discussed
Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.
Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.
Functional Categories of Language
Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the functional categories under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, andimaginative.
Personal = Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth
Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships: Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:
- greetings and leave takings
- introducing people to others
- identifying oneself to others
- expressing joy at another’s success
- expressing concern for other people’s welfare
- extending and accepting invitations
- refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements
- making appointments for meetings
- breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time
- apologizing
- excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments
- indicating agreement or disagreement
- interrupting another speaker politely
- changing an embarrassing subject
- receiving visitors and paying visits to others
- offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely
- sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
- making promises and committing oneself to some action
- complimenting someone
- making excuses
- expressing and acknowledging gratitude
Directive = Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:
- making suggestions in which the speaker is included
- making requests; making suggestions
- refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternative
- persuading someone to change his point of view
- requesting and granting permission
- asking for help and responding to a plea for help
- forbidding someone to do something; issuing a command
- giving and responding to instructions
- warning someone
- discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
- establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions
- asking for directions or instructions
Referential = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function:
- identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community
- asking for a description of someone or something
- defining something or a language item or asking for a definition
- paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa)
- explaining or asking for explanations of how something works
- comparing or contrasting things
- discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something
- requesting or reporting facts about events or actions
- evaluating the results of an action or event
Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expression
- discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
- expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material
- creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays
- recombining familiar dialogs or passages creatively
- suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories
- solving problems or mysteries
Total Physical Response
Asher, J.C. (1979). Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint.
James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:
Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.
TECHNIQUE
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.
The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share a common theoretical and philosophical base.The Natural Approach to L2 teaching is based on the following hypotheses:
1. The acquisition-learning distinction hypothesis
Adults can "get" a second language much as they learn their first language, through informal, implicit, subconscious learning. The conscious, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of a language is a different, and often non-essential process.
2. The natural order of acquisition hypothesis
L2 learners acquire forms in a predictable order. This order very closely parallels the acquisition of grammatical and syntactic structures in the first language.
3. The monitor hypothesis
Fluency in L2 comes from the acquisition process. Learning produces a "monitoring" or editor of performance. The application of the monitor function requires time, focus on form and knowledge of the rule.
4. The input hypothesis
Language is acquired through comprehensible input. If an L2 learner is at a certain stage in language acquisition and he/she understands something that includes a structure at the next stage, this helps him/her to acquire that structure. Thus, the i+1 concept, where i= the stage of acquisition.
5. The affective hypothesis
People with certain personalities and certain motivations perform better in L2 acquisition. Learners with high self-esteem and high levels of self-confidence acquire L2 faster. Also, certain low-anxiety pleasant situations are more conducive to L2 acquisition.
6. The filter hypothesis
There exists an affective filter or "mental block" that can prevent input from "getting in." Pedagogically, the more that is done to lower the filter, the more acquisition can take place. A low filter is achieved through low-anxiety, relaxation, non-defensiveness.
7. The aptitude hypothesis
There is such a thing as a language learning aptitude. This aptitude can be measured and is highly correlated with general learning aptitude. However, aptitude relates more to learning while attitude relates more to acquisition.
8. The first language hypothesis
The L2 learner will naturally substitute competence in L1 for competence in L2. Learners should not be forced to use the L1 to generate L2 performance. A silent period and insertion of L1 into L2 utterances should be expected and tolerated.
9. The textuality hypothesis
The event-structures of experience are textual in nature and will be easier to produce, understand, and recall to the extent that discourse or text is motivated and structured episodically. Consequently, L2 teaching materials are more successful when they incorporate principles of good story writing along with sound linguistic analysis.
10. The expectancy hypothesis
Discourse has a type of "cognitive momentum." The activation of correct expectancies will enhance the processing of textual structures. Consequently, L2 learners must be guided to develop the sort of native-speaker "intuitions" that make discourse predictable.
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Language pedagogy
Language education may take place as a general school subject, in a specialized language school, or out of school with a rich selection of proprietary methods online and in books, CDs and DVDs. There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful insights.
There are three principal views
- The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar).
- The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something.
- The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s.[1]
Contents
[hide]- 1 Methodology
- 2 Structural methods
- 3 Functional methods
- 4 Interactive methods
- 4.1 Direct method
- 4.2 The series method
- 4.3 Communicative language teaching
- 4.4 Language immersion
- 4.5 Silent Way
- 4.6 Community Language Learning
- 4.7 Suggestopedia
- 4.8 Natural Approach
- 4.9 Total Physical Response
- 4.10 Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling
- 4.11 Dogme language teaching
- 5 Proprietary methods
Methodology[edit]
In the late 1800s and most of the 1900s, language teaching was usually conceived in terms ofmethod. In seeking to improve teaching practices, teachers and researchers would typically try to find out which method was the most effective.[2] However, method is an ambiguous concept in language teaching, and has been used in many different ways. According to Bell, this variety in use "offers a challenge for anyone wishing to enter into the analysis or deconstruction of methods".[3]
Approach, method and technique
In 1963, Anthony formulated a framework to describe various language teaching methods, which consisted three levels: approach, method, and technique.[4] According to Anthony, "The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach."[5] His concept of approach was of a set of principles or ideas about the nature of language learning which would be consistent over time; "an approach is axiomatic".[5] His method was more procedural; "an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach."[5] Finally, his concept of technique referred to the actual implementation in the language classroom; "a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective."[5] He saw techniques as being consistent with a given method and by extension, with a given approach.[4]
A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system must be designed considering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students and the roles of teachers. A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from the controlling method, and less-directly, with the approach.[1]
Anthony's framework was welcomed by the language teaching community when it was introduced, and it was seen as a useful way of classifying different teaching practices.[6]However, it did not clearly define the difference between approach, method, and technique, and Kumaravadivelu reports that due to this ambiguity there was "widespread dissatisfaction" with it.[6] Anthony himself recognized the limitations of his framework, and was open to the idea of improvements being made to it.[6]
Approach, design and procedure[edit]
Richards and Rogers' 1982 approach expanded on Anthony’s three-level framework; however, instead of approach, method and technique, they chose the terms approach,design, and procedure.[7] Their concept of approach was similar to Anthony's, but theirdesign and procedure were of broader scope than Anthony's method and technique.[7] Theirdesign referred to all major practical implications in the classroom, such as syllabus design, types of activities to be used in the classroom, and student and teacher roles; procedurereferred to different behaviors, practices and techniques observed in the classroom.[7] These new terms were intended to address limitations in Anthony's framework,[8] and also gave them specific criteria by which they could evaluate different "methods".[9] This evaluation process was a key way that their formulation differed from Anthony's, as Anthony's framework was intended as purely descriptive.
Despite Richards and Rogers' efforts to clearly define approach, design, and procedure, their framework has been criticized by Kumaravadivelu for having "an element of artificiality in its conception and an element of subjectivity in its operation".[10] Kumaravadivelu also points to similar objections raised by Pennyworth and by the Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning.[10] Brown also questions the suitability of Richards and Rogers' termdesign; he points out that in English teaching design is usually used to refer specifically to curriculum design, rather than the broad definition Richards and Rogers used] Most current teacher training manuals favor the terms approach, method, and technique.
Structural methods
Grammar-translation method
The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself.[citation needed] It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages, however it remains the most commonly practiced method of English teaching in Japan.[citation needed]
At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible to all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course.[citation needed] That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each one to understand how the mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate its thought.
Audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method was developed in the USA around World War II when governments realized that they needed more people who could conduct conversations fluently in a variety of languages, work as interpreters, code-room assistants, and translators. However, since foreign language instruction in that country was heavily focused on reading instruction, no textbooks, other materials or courses existed at the time, so new methods and materials had to be devised. For example, the U.S. Army Specialized Training Program created intensive programs based on the techniques Leonard Bloomfield and other linguists devised for Native American languages, where students interacted intensively with native speakers and a linguist in guided conversations designed to decode its basic grammar and learn the vocabulary. This "informant method" had great success with its small class sizes and motivated learners.
The U.S. Army Specialized Training Program only lasted a few years, but it gained a lot of attention from the popular press and the academic community. Charles Fries set up the first English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, to train English as a second or foreign language teachers. Similar programs were created later at Georgetown University,University of Texas among others based on the methods and techniques used by the military. The developing method had much in common with the British oral approach although the two developed independently. The main difference was the developing audio-lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on grammar and contrastive analysis to find differences between the student's native language and the target language in order to prepare specific materials to address potential problems. These materials strongly emphasized drill as a way to avoid or eliminate these problems.
This first version of the method was originally called the oral method, the aural-oral method or the structural approach. The audio-lingual method truly began to take shape near the end of the 1950s, this time due government pressure resulting from the space race. Courses and techniques were redesigned to add insights from behaviorist psychology to the structural linguistics and constructive analysis already being used. Under this method, students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The idea is that by reinforcing 'correct' behaviors, students will make them into habits
The typical structure of a chapter employing the Audio-Lingual-Method (ALM—and there was even a text book entitled ALM [1963]) was usually standardized as follows: 1. First item was a dialog in the foreign language (FL) to be memorized by the student. The teacher would go over it the day before. 2. There were then questions in the FL about the dialog to be answered by the student(s) in the target language. 3. Often a brief introduction to the grammar of the chapter was next, including the verb(s) and conjugations. 4. The mainstay of the chapter was "pattern practice," which were drills expecting "automatic" responses from the student(s) as a noun, verb conjugation, or agreeing adjective was to be inserted in the blank in the text (or during the teacher's pause). The teacher could have the student use the book or not use it, relative to how homework was assigned. Depending on time, the class could respond as a chorus, or the teacher could pick individuals to respond. It was really a sort of "mimicry-memorization." And it was "Julian Dakin in 'The Language Laboratory and Language Learning' (Longman 1973) who coined the phrase 'meaningless drills' to describe pattern practice of the kind inspired by the above ideas." 5. There was a vocabulary list, sometimes with translations to the mother tongue. 6. The chapter usually ended with a short reading exercise.
Due to weaknesses in performance, and more importantly because of Noam Chomsky's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, audio-lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today. However, elements of the method still survive in many textbooks.
Functional methods
The oral approach and situational language teaching
The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. They were familiar with the direct method as well as the work of 19th-century applied linguists such as Otto Jesperson and Daniel Jones but attempted to formally develop a more scientifically founded approach to teaching English than was evidenced by the direct method.[1]
A number of large-scale investigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on reading skills in the 1920s led to the notion of "vocabulary control". It was discovered that languages have a core basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words that occur frequently in written texts, and it was assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension. Parallel to this was the notion of "grammar control", emphasizing the sentence patterns most-commonly found in spoken conversation. Such patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students. The principal difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods devised under this approach would have theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of difficulty of exercises and the presentation of such material and exercises. The main proposed benefit was that such theoretically based organization of content would result in a less-confusing sequence of learning events with better contextualization of the vocabulary and grammatical patterns presented.[1] Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in "situations". Emphasis on this point led to the approach's second name. Proponents claim that this approach leads to students' acquiring good habits to be repeated in their corresponding situations. Teaching methods stress PPP (presentation (introduction of new material in context), practice (a controlled practice phase) and production (activities designed for less-controlled practice)).
Although this approach is all but unknown among language teachers today, elements of it have had long-lasting effects on language teaching, being the basis of many widely used English as a Second/Foreign Language textbooks as late as the 1980s and elements of it still appear in current texts.[1] Many of the structural elements of this approach were called into question in the 1960s, causing modifications of this method that led to communicative language teaching. However, its emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns still finds widespread support among language teachers and remains popular in countries where foreign language syllabuses are still heavily based on grammar.
Directed practice
Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by U.S. diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide a phrasebook-type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student's usage is accurate and precise. However the student's choice of what to say is not flexible.
Interactive methods
Direct method
The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and is best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé, although neither claims originality and it has been re-invented under other names.[14] The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language: a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching. Such methods rely on directly representing an experience into a linguistic construct rather than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary
According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learners for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed words until he has good grasp of speech. Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner's first language. All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.
The method relies on a step-by-step progression based on question-and-answer sessions which begin with naming common objects such as doors, pencils, floors, etc. It provides a motivating start as the learner begins using a foreign language almost immediately. Lessons progress to verb forms and other grammatical structures with the goal of learning about thirty new words per lesson.[14]
The series method
In the 19th century, Francois Gouin went to Hamburg to learn German. Based on his experience as a Latin teacher, he thought the best way to do this would be memorize a German grammar book and a table of its 248 irregular verbs. However, when he went to the academy to test his new language skills, he was disappointed to find out that he could not understand anything. Trying again, he similarly memorized the 800 root words of the language as well as re-memorizing the grammar and verb forms. However, the results were the same. During this time, he had isolated himself from people around him, so he tried to learn by listening, imitating and conversing with the Germans around him, but found that his carefully constructed sentences often caused native German speakers to laugh. Again he tried a more classical approach, translation, and even memorizing the entire dictionary but had no better luck.[14]
When he returned home, he found that his three-year-old nephew had learned to speakFrench. He noticed the boy was very curious and upon his first visit to a mill, he wanted to see everything and be told the name of everything. After digesting the experience silently, he then reenacted his experiences in play, talking about what he learned to whoever would listen or to himself. Gouin decided that language learning was a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, using language to represent what one experiences. Language is not an arbitrary set of conventions but a way of thinking and representing the world to oneself. It is not a conditioning process, but one in which the learner actively organizes his perceptions into linguistics concepts.[1
The series method is a variety of the direct method in that experiences are directly connected to the target language. Gouin felt that such direct "translation" of experience into words, makes for a "living language". (p59) Gouin also noticed that children organize concepts in succession of time, relating a sequence of concepts in the same order. Gouin suggested that students learn a language more quickly and retain it better if it is presented through a chronological sequence of events. Students learn sentences based on an action such as leaving a house in the order in which such would be performed. Gouin found that if the series of sentences are shuffled, their memorization becomes nearly impossible. For this, Gouin preceded psycholinguistic theory of the 20th century. He found that people will memorize events in a logical sequence, even if they are not presented in that order. He also discovered a second insight into memory called "incubation". Linguistic concepts take time to settle in the memory. The learner must use the new concepts frequently after presentation, either by thinking or by speaking, in order to master them. His last crucial observation was that language was learned in sentences with the verb as the most crucial component. Gouin would write a series in two columns: one with the complete sentences and the other with only the verb. With only the verb elements visible, he would have students recite the sequence of actions in full sentences of no more than twenty-five sentences. Another exercise involved having the teacher solicit a sequence of sentences by basically ask him/her what s/he would do next. While Gouin believed that language was rule-governed, he did not believe it should be explicitly taught.
His course was organized on elements of human society and the natural world. He estimated that a language could be learned with 800 to 900 hours of instruction over a series of 4000 exercises and no homework. The idea was that each of the exercises would force the student to think about the vocabulary in terms of its relationship with the natural world. While there is evidence that the method can work extremely well, it has some serious flaws. One of which is the teaching of subjective language, where the students must make judgments about what is experienced in the world (e.g. "bad" and "good") as such do not relate easily to one single common experience. However, the real weakness is that the method is entirely based on one experience of a three-year-old. Gouin did not observe the child's earlier language development such as naming (where only nouns are learned) or the role that stories have in human language development. What distinguishes the series method from the direct method is that vocabulary must be learned by translation from the native language, at least in the beginning.[14]
Communicative language teaching
Communicative language teaching(CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms[15] it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, whereconstructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse. Although the 'Communicative Language Teaching' is not so much a method on its own as it is an approach.[16]
In recent years, task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction. Dogme language teaching shares a philosophy with TBL, although differs in approach.[17] Dogme is a communicative approach, and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher.[18]
Language immersion
Language immersion in school contexts delivers academic content through the medium of a foreign language, providing support for L2 learning and first language maintenance. There are three main types of immersion education programs in the United States: foreign language immersion, dual immersion, and indigenous immersion.
Foreign language immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English. In the early immersion model, for all or part of the school day elementary school children receive their content (academic) instruction through the medium of another language: Spanish, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, etc. In early total immersion models, children receive all the regular kindergarten and first grade content through the medium of the immersion language; English reading is introduced later, often in the second grade. Most content (math, science, social studies, art, music) continues to be taught through the immersion language. In early partial immersion models, part of the school day (usually 50%) delivers content through the immersion language, and part delivers it through English. French-language immersion programs are common in Canada in the provincial school systems, as part of the drive towards bilingualism and are increasing in number in the United States in public school systems (Curtain & Dahlbert, 2004). Branaman & Rhodes (1998) report that between 1987 and 1997 the percentage of elementary programs offering foreign language education in the U.S. through immersion grew from 2% to 8% and Curtain & Dahlberg (2004) report 278 foreign language immersion programs in 29 states. Research by Swain and others (Genesee 1987) demonstrate much higher levels of proficiency achieved by children in foreign language immersion programs than in traditional foreign language education elementary school models.
Dual immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English as well as for students whose home language is the immersion language (usually Spanish). The goal is bilingual students with mastery of both English and the immersion language. As in partial foreign language immersion academic content is delivered through the medium of the immersion language for part of the school day, and through English the rest of the school day.
Indigenous immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for American Indian communities desiring to maintain the use of the native language by delivering elementary school content through the medium of that language. Hawaiian Immersion programs are the largest and most successful in this category.
Silent Way
The Silent Way is a discovery learning approach, invented by Caleb Gattegno in the early 1970s. The teacher is usually silent, leaving room for the students to explore the language. They are responsible for their own learning and are encouraged to interact. The role of the teacher is to give clues, not to model the language.
Community Language Learning
The Community Language Learning (CLL) is a method proposed by Charles A. Curran during the 1970s. It is based on the counseling approach in which the teacher is seen as a counselor. It emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, encourages interaction as a vital aspect of learning, and it considers as a priority the students' feelings and the recognition of struggles in language acquisition. There is no syllabus or textbook to follow and it is the students themselves who determine the content of the lesson. Notably, it incorporates translation and recording techniques.
Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia was a method that experienced popularity especially in past years, with both staunch supporters and very strong critics, some claiming it is based on pseudoscience.
Natural Approach
The natural approach is a language teaching method developed by Stephen Krashen andTracy D. Terrell. They emphasise the learner receiving large amounts of comprehensible input. The Natural Approach can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching.
Total Physical Response
In Total Physical Response (TPR), the instructor gives the students commands in the target language and the students act those commands out using whole-body responses. This can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching.
Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling
Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPR Storytelling or TPRS) was developed by Blaine Ray, a language teacher in California, in the 1990s. At first it was an offshoot of Total Physical Response that also included storytelling, but it has evolved into a method in its own right and has gained a large following among teachers, particularly in the United States. TPR Storytelling can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching.
Dogme language teaching
Dogme language teaching is considered to be both a methodology and a movement. Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher. It has its roots in an article by the language education author, Scott Thornbury. The Dogme approach is also referred to as “Dogme ELT”, which reflects its origins in the ELT (English language teaching) sector. Although Dogme language teaching gained its name from an analogy with the Dogme 95 film movement (initiated by Lars von Trier), the connection is not considered close.
Proprietary methods
Some methods are tied to a particular company or school, and are not used in mainstream teaching. Besides those mentioned below, there are dozens of competitors, each slightly different.[19] Notable are the computer courses which use speech recognition to give feedback on pronunciation.[20]
Pimsleur method
Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. It involves recorded 30-minute lessons to be done daily, with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, revision, and new material. Students are asked to translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to lines spoken in the target language. The instruction starts in the student's language but gradually changes to the target language. Several all-audio programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method. The syllabus is the same in all languages.
Michel Thomas Method
Michel Thomas Method is an audio-based teaching system developed by Michel Thomas, a language teacher in the USA. It was originally done in person, although since his death it is done via recorded lessons. The instruction is done entirely in the student's own language, although the student's responses are always expected to be in the target language. The method focuses on constructing long sentences with correct grammar and building student confidence. There is no listening practice, and there is no reading or writing. The syllabus is ordered around the easiest and most useful features of the language, and as such is different for each language.
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Modern Teaching Methods
As mentioned above, the modern language teacher doesn't follow one rigid method, but applies the Principled Eclecticism approach - fitting the method to the learner, not vice versa.
This means choosing the techniques and activities that are appropriate for each particular task, context and learner, with a focus on motivation and helping learners become independent and inspired to learn more.
The explanation of Principled Eclecticism also includes a useful ten-point guide for teachers and language students on the best teaching and learning techniques.
Fitting the method to the learner, not vice versa
Today the professional language teacher has a good grounding in the various techniques and new approaches, and they know and understand the history and evolution of teaching methodologies.
The modern teacher will in fact use a variety of methodologies and approaches, choosing techniques from each method that they consider effective and applying them according to the learning context and objectives. They prepare their lessons to facilitate the understanding of the new language being taught and do not rely on one specific 'best method'.
Some Examples
- The teacher proposes a variety of exercises, both written and oral, to improve the learner's accuracy, fluency and communicative ability.
- The teacher corrects errors immediately if the scope of the classroom activity isaccuracy, but if the scope of the activity is fluency these errors will be corrected later on.
- The teacher develops all four linguistic capabilities (reading, writing, listening and speaking).
- To improve pronunciation the teacher uses drills, where students repeat automatically the phrases spoken by the teacher.
- The teacher helps the student personalize the use of grammatical and lexical elements used in class.
- The teacher understands that a didactic program has to include not only grammar and lexis, but also linguistic functions, colloquialisms, idioms, etc.
- The teacher introduces exercises of guided discovery for new grammar rules.
- At times the teacher may translate - but only if they know both languages very well and believe it is the most efficient way to provide the meaning of a new concept in that moment, especially for abstract ideas.
- The teacher is committed to developing a wide range of resources in order to give relevant, stimulating, and productive lessons.
It is impossible to do everything if only one method is used. As a result, professional EFL teachers follow what is described as the Principled Eclecticism approach, where students are also encouraged to be autonomous in their learning.
However, some private schools and training companies still prefer to promote a specific in-house branded method or approach, though often mainly for commercial or marketing reasons rather than for didactic reasons.
The Way Ahead
The respected author and American university professor, Douglas Brown, provides a list of the 'ten commandments' for effective language learning, applied to both ESL teachers and learners:
| For EFL Teachers | For Language Learners |
|---|---|
| Lower inhibitions | Fear not! |
| Encourage risk-taking | Dive in |
| Build self-confidence | Believe in yourself |
| Develop intrinsic motivation | Seize the day |
| Engage in cooperative learning | Work with your team |
| Use right-brain processes | Get the BIG picture |
| Promote ambiguity tolerance | Cope with the chaos |
| Practice intuition | Follow your hunches |
| Process error feedback | Make mistakes work FOR you |
| Set personal goals | Set your own goals |
From his book Principles of Language Learning & Teaching (Pearson Longman, 2001)
These recommendations aim to promote learner autonomy and stress the importance of self-motivation. Through guided discovery, language learners should not expect the teacher to deliver everything to them neatly packaged, wielding some new magic teaching method, but should take charge of their own learning and jump in.
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The Communicative Method is in reality an umbrella term - a broad approach rather than a specific teaching methodology, and has now become the accepted 'standard' in English language teaching.
Communicative Language Teaching is a natural follow-on from the reaction during the 70s against previous methods which over-focused on teaching grammatical structures and template sentences, and which gave little or no importance to how language is actually used practically.
Explanation
"Emphasizes the ability to communicate the meaning of the message, instead of concentrating on grammatical perfection."
The Communicative approach emphasizes the ability to communicate the message in terms of its meaning, instead of concentrating exclusively on grammatical perfection or phonetics. Therefore, the understanding of the second language is evaluated in terms of how much the learners have developed their communicative abilities and competencies.
In essence, it considers using the language to be just as important as actually learning the language.
The Communicative Language Teaching method has various characteristics that distinguish it from previous methods:
- Understanding occurs through active student interaction in the foreign language
- Teaching occurs by using authentic English texts
- Students not only learn the second language but they also learn strategies for understanding
- Importance is given to learners' personal experiences and situations, which are considered as an invaluable contribution to the content of the lessons
- Using the new language in unrehearsed contexts creates learning opportunities outside the classroom
Misconceptions
As the method is a broad approach to teaching English, rather than a rigid series of activities, there are some popular misconceptions of what CLT involves. Learning a language is interactive, co-operative, learner-centered and content-based, but the approach does not mean that learning a second language involves just 'conversation'.
Using the Method
The most common educational model applied in the context of the Communicative Method is the Functional-Notional approach, which emphasizes the organisation of the syllabus. This breaks down the use of language into 5 functional categories that can be more easily analyzed: personal (feelings, etc.), interpersonal (social and working relationships), directive (influencing others), referential (reporting about things, events, people or language itself), and imaginative (creativity and artistic expression).
These 5 broad functions are then delivered by the teacher in the classroom using the '3
Ps' teaching model, which stand for Presentation, Practice and Production.
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An explosion of new and radical approaches to learning a language came to light in the 1970s. These approaches are often grouped under the title of Humanistic Approaches due to their method of concentration, touching on the innate ability and capacity that all learners are presumed to possess.
Suggestopedia
This method is based on the idea that the mind has great potential and can retain information by the power of suggestion. This teaching method uses relaxation as a means of retaining new knowledge.
In their initial lessons learners receive large quantities of information in the new language. The text is translated and then read aloud with classical music in the background. The scope is to supply an atmosphere of total relaxation whereunderstanding is purely accidental and subliminal. Using large quantities of linguistic material introduces the idea that language understanding is easy and natural.
In the following lesson, learners use the material in a variety of communication activities. The original learning techniques and theory developed by Georgi Lozanov have since developed into the Accelerated Learning movement.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
"Allow students to produce when they are 'ready'. Improvement comes from supplying communicative input, not from forcing production."
Dr Stephen Krashen
This method draws on the basic principles of how young children learn their first language. Developed by James Asher, this teaching method involves a wide range of physical activities and a lot of listening and comprehension, as well as an emphasis onlearning as fun and stimulating.
Total Physical Response has limitations, especially when teaching abstract language and tasks, but is widely considered to be effective for beginners and is still the standard approach for young learners.
The Silent Way
Another example of a method categorized under the Humanistic Approaches, with this technique the teacher is supposed to be practically silent - hence the name of the method - and avoids explaining everything to the students. This method is based on a problem-solving approach to learning, whereby the students' learning becomes autonomous and co-operative.
The scope is to help students select the appropriate phrases and know how to control them, with good intonation and rhythm. The teacher does not repeat the material nor supplies the phrases that the student has to imitate, and there is no use of the learner's native language. Patterns contain vocabulary, and coloured guides for pronunciation are used to assist the teacher in guiding the students' understanding while saying the least amount possible.
Community Language Learning
Also sharing many of the same principles as the Silent Way, this technique was relatively short-lived. Seeing the student as a 'whole' person, the method involved students sitting in a circle and encouraging them to use their feelings, intellect, relationships and reactions.
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With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.
Explanation
Based on Skinner's Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback. This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language.
"Emphasis is on the acquisition of patterns in common everyday dialogue."
The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic.
Some characteristics of this method are:
- Drills are used to teach structural patterns
- Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation
- Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum
- Vocabulary is taught in context
- Audio-visual aids are used
- Focus is on pronunciation
- Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately
Modern Usage
The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teacher's point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect.
Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio Shenker, who promoted guided self learning with the Shenker method in Italy, and Robin Callan, who created the Callan method.
Developments & Problems
This extensive memorization, repetition and over-learning of patterns was the key to the method's success, as students could often see immediate results, but it was also its weakness.
"It was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation."
The method's insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of context and knowledge in language learning. As the study of linguistics developed, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that errors were not necessarily bad.
It was also claimed that the methodology did not deliver an improvement in communicative ability that lasted over the long term.
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Direct Method
This approach, also known as the 'oral' or 'natural' method, originated around the 1900s as an alternative to the traditional grammatical translation method. At this time teachers were starting to experiment with teaching and educational models as previous techniques were failing to improve spoken communication.
"The focus is on good pronunciation, with spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little grammar analysis."
The Direct Method is based on the direct involvement of the student when speaking, and listening to, the foreign language in common everyday situations. Consequently, there is lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammar rules and syntax. The focus of the lessons is on good pronunciation, often introducing learners to phonetic symbols before they see standard writing examples.
The Direct Method continues to provoke interest and enthusiasm today, but it is not an easy methodology to use in a classroom situation. It requires small classes and high student motivation, and in the artificial environment of a classroom it is difficult to generate natural situations of understanding and guarantee sufficient practice for everyone.
However, variants of this method have been developed where the teacher allows limited explanations in the student's native language and explains some grammar rules to correct common errors a student may make when speaking. One of the most famous supporters of this method was the German Charles Berlitz, who founded the Berlitz chain of private language schools.
Some characteristics of this method are:
- Lessons are in the target language
- There is a focus on everyday vocabulary
- Visual aids are used to teach vocabulary
- Particular attention is placed on the accuracy of pronunciation and grammar
- A systematic approach is developed for comprehension and oral expression
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Grammar Translation Method
Sometimes also known as the Classical Method, this is a traditional teaching technique that was used to teach Latin and Greek and was particularly in vogue during the 16th Century.
The focus at this time was on the translation of texts, grammar, and rote learning of vocabulary. There was no emphasis on speaking and listening comprehension because Latin and Greek were taught more as academic subjects rather than a means of oral communication.
This teaching method is still common in many countries and institutions around the world, and still appeals to those interested in languages from an intellectual or linguistic perspective. However, it does little to improve your ability to use the language for oral communication.
Direct Method
This approach, also known as the 'oral' or 'natural' method, originated around the 1900s as an alternative to the traditional grammatical translation method. At this time teachers were starting to experiment with teaching and educational models as previous techniques were failing to improve spoken communication.
"The focus is on good pronunciation, with spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little grammar analysis."
The Direct Method is based on the direct involvement of the student when speaking, and listening to, the foreign language in common everyday situations. Consequently, there is lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammar rules and syntax. The focus of the lessons is on good pronunciation, often introducing learners to phonetic symbols before they see standard writing examples.
The Direct Method continues to provoke interest and enthusiasm today, but it is not an easy methodology to use in a classroom situation. It requires small classes and high student motivation, and in the artificial environment of a classroom it is difficult to generate natural situations of understanding and guarantee sufficient practice for everyone.
However, variants of this method have been developed where the teacher allows limited explanations in the student's native language and explains some grammar rules to correct common errors a student may make when speaking. One of the most famous supporters of this method was the German Charles Berlitz, who founded the Berlitz chain of private language schools.
Some characteristics of this method are:
- Lessons are in the target language
- There is a focus on everyday vocabulary
- Visual aids are used to teach vocabulary
- Particular attention is placed on the accuracy of pronunciation and grammar
- A systematic approach is developed for comprehension and oral expression
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What is the best teaching method for learning English
According to academic research, linguists have demonstrated that there is not one single best method for everyone in all contexts, and that no one teaching method is inherently superior to the others.
Also, it is not always possible - or appropriate - to apply the same methodology to all learners, who have different objectives, environments and learning needs.
"Applying the most appropriate method for that learner's specific objectives, learning style and context."
An experienced professional language teacher always adopts the Principled Eclecticism approach, deciding on the most suitable techniques and applying the most appropriate methodology for that learner's specific objectives, learning style and context.
Methods of teaching English have developed rapidly, especially in the previous 40 years. It is important that language learners and training managers, as well as teachers, understand the various methods and techniques so you are able to navigate the market, make educated choices, and boost your enjoyment of learning a language.
An Overview
Each teaching method is based on a particular vision of understanding the language or the learning process, often using specific techniques and materials used in a set sequence.
The main methodologies are listed below in the chronological order of their development:
- Grammar Translation - the classical method
- Direct Method - discovering the importance of speaking
- Audio-lingualism - the first modern methodology
- Humanistic Approaches - a range of holistic methods applied to language learning
- Communicative Language Teaching - the modern standard method
- Principled Eclecticism - fitting the method to the learner, not the learner to the method
What are the Differences?
Each method has a different focus or priority, so let's look at what this means in practical terms in the classroom.
The more common methods have a link to a separate page with more details and an explanation of how they work, including the most common method currently used - Communicative Language Teaching.
| Method | Focus | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
|
Written literary texts |
Translate from English into your native language |
|
|
Direct Method (also called Natural Method) |
Everyday spoken language |
Student learns by associating meaning directly in English |
|
Sentence and sound patterns |
Listening and speaking drills and pattern practice only in English |
|
|
Cognitive Code Approach |
Grammar rules |
English grammar rules deduced and then understood in context |
|
Humanistic Approaches - 4 popular examples: |
||
|
- The Silent Way |
Student interaction rather than teacher |
Teacher is silent to allow student awareness of how English works |
|
- Suggestopedia |
Meaningful texts and vocabulary |
Relaxed atmosphere, with music; encourages subliminal learning of English |
|
- Community Language Learning |
Student interaction |
Understanding of English through active student interaction |
|
- Comprehension Approach (Natural Approach, the Learnables, and Total Physical Response) |
Listening comprehension |
English speaking delayed until students are ready; meaning clarified through actions and visuals |
|
Interaction, authentic communication and negotiating meaning |
Understanding of English through active student interaction; role play, games, information gaps |
|
|
Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches |
What is being communicated, not structure of English |
Content based on relevance to students' lives: topics, tasks, problem-solving |
|
Learning Strategy Training, Cooperative Learning, and Multiple Intelligences |
How to learn |
Teach learning strategies, cooperation; activities vary according to different intelligences |
Based on Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (Oxford University Press)
Modern Teaching Methods
As mentioned above, the modern language teacher doesn't follow one rigid method, but applies the Principled Eclecticism approach - fitting the method to the learner, not vice versa.
This means choosing the techniques and activities that are appropriate for each particular task, context and learner, with a focus on motivation and helping learners become independent and inspired to learn more.
The explanation of Principled Eclecticism also includes a useful ten-point guide for teachers and language students on the best teaching and learning techniques.
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Types of Tests
Multiple Choice Tests
Probably the most common way of testing grammatical knowledge is the multiple choice test. These tests have the advantage of being easy to grade and being able to cover a lot of grammatical points quickly.
The most common type of multiple choice grammatical item is one in which the test maker gives the testee a sentence with a blank and four or five choices of a word or phrase which completes the sentence correctly. For example,
Because my mother was sick, I _____ to go home last week.
a) had b) have c) has d) hadn't
To give slightly more context, this type of question sometimes makes use of a short dialogue, with one person saying something and the other person responding.
A way of testing short answers and responses is to give the testees an utterance, and have them decide which of four or five utterances is an appropriate response. This can be either a test of comprehension or a test of grammar. For example,
"I think that tuition is much too high here."
a) I do so. b) Do I so. c) I so do. d) So do I.
Another way to test grammatical knowledge using multiple choice items is to give testees a sentence and ask them to choose which of four or five alternatives has the same meaning.
"The school should have expelled him."
a) The school didn't expel him, which was wrong.
b) The school expelled him, because it was necessary.
c) The school might have expelled him, if it had known.
d) The school will probably expel him in the near future.
Again this is a test of reading comprehension as well as grammar, but in order to understand the meaning of the sentence, the reader does have to understand the grammar.
The test maker must find a balance between giving enough context and giving too much. One way to give more context and make the language more natural is to give the items in the form of a short reading passage rather than individual sentences. This gives the testees more context and, if the passage is chosen carefully, is also much more interesting than reading individual, uncontextualized sentences. However, it may be more difficult to test a range of grammatical points, since the grammatical points are restricted by the content of the passage.
A variation on this idea is to use a piece of prose written by a non-native English speaker. This is particularly useful for making a grammar test for testees who are all of the same language group, since the errors made by the writer can be used as distracters.
Error Correction
Error correction items are also useful for testing grammar. An error correction item is one in which the testee is given a sentence with an error. Four words or phrases in the sentence marked with letters, and the testee needs to decide which of the words or phrases has the error. For example,
(a) Most of students (b) believe that they (c) should be getting better grades (d) than they are.
The teacher may also mix in some sentences that have no errors, and students are required to indicate that there is no error. In addition, the students might be required to correct the error. Errors from students' actual writing are a good source of ideas for this type of exercise.
Items to Test Knowledge of Word/Sentence Order
Other types of items can be used to test testees' knowledge of word order. The traditional way is to present the testee with four alternative word orders. For example,
I wonder how she knows _____.
a) how it costs much.
b) how much it costs.
c) it costs how much.
d) it how much costs.
Another possibility is to give testees the four words and ask them to put the words in order. For example,
I wonder how she knows __________
A. how B. it C. much D. costs
/__/__/__/__/
This can also be done in a way that actually requires the writer to do some writing. For example,
I wonder how she knows ___________________.
how / it /much / costs
Understanding of appropriate sentence order can also be tested in a similar way by giving testees several sentences and asking them to put them in order. This type of test tests knowledge of references, cohesive devices, etc.
Completion Items
Completion items are items in which the testees are asked to fill in blanks in sentences.
For example,
Give the book to ______ woman in the blue dress.
For the purpose of a grammar test, the words which fit in the blanks should be function words, such as articles and prepositions. (Completion items intended to test reading ability or vocabulary knowledge, in contrast, use content words.) The advantage of completion items is that they test production, not just recognition. The disadvantage is that they need to be marked by hand and there will be some cases where the marker needs to make judgements about whether a response is correct. It is not always easy to write items for which there is only one possible answer. Using a piece of continuous prose rather than disconnected sentences is one way of cutting down on possible different interpretations of what goes into a particular blank, but it is probably impossible to entirely eliminate the possibility of different answers.
Also, it is possible to require a phrase instead of a word in each blank. However, while this method presents a more realistic situation, it does become more difficult to mark. While it is probably not realistic for large- scale testing situations, it is something that is useful for classroom teachers who want to help their students develop an ability to produce appropriate grammatical forms in context.
Transformation Items
Another type of grammar item makes use of transformations. In this type of item, testees are given a sentence and the first few words of another sentence to change the original sentence without changing the meaning. For example,
1. Jim hasn't been home in a long time.
It's been a long time _________________________.2. I don't need to go to the grocery store this week.
It isn't __________________________________________.3. It is difficult to study when it is so noisy.
Studying ________________________________________.
There are variations on this type of item in which the word which starts the transformed sentence is underlined, or the testee is given one word to use in the new sentence. For example,
I don't need to go to the grocery store this week. (necessary)
Again, this type of test is difficult to grade because the teacher has to be aware of the variety of possible answers. Another problem is that it does not in any way test the testees' knowledge of when each of the possible transformations would be most appropriate. For example, the testee might be perfectly able to transform an active sentence to a passive sentence but not know when to use passive rather than active. However, it is still sometimes a useful test of grammatical knowledge.
Word Changing Items
Another type of item is one in which the testees are given a sentence and a word which they need to fit into the sentence by changing the form of the word. For example,
1. I have never _____ to Australia. (be)
2. I will be with you __________. (moment)
This type of grammar test item tests students' knowledge of different word forms and how they are used in sentences.
Sentence Combining Exercises
Sentence combining exercises can play a part in testing grammar as well as its more traditional use as part of composition testing and training. For example, testees might be instructed to combine the following sentences using a relative pronoun.
I met a man.
The man went to the same high school I did.I met a man who went to the same high school I did.
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Error Correction
Error correction items are also useful for testing grammar. An error correction item is one in which the testee is given a sentence with an error. Four words or phrases in the sentence marked with letters, and the testee needs to decide which of the words or phrases has the error. For example,
(a) Most of students (b) believe that they (c) should be getting better grades (d) than they are.
The teacher may also mix in some sentences that have no errors, and students are required to indicate that there is no error. In addition, the students might be required to correct the error. Errors from students' actual writing are a good source of ideas for this type of exercise.
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Open and Closed Questions
These are two types of questions you can use that are very different in character and usage.
Closed questions
Definition
There are two definitions that are used to describe closed questions. A common definition is:
A closed question can be answered with either a single word or a short phrase.
Thus 'How old are you?' and 'Where do you live?' are closed questions. A more limiting definition that is sometimes used is:
A closed question can be answered with either 'yes' or 'no'.
By this definition 'Are you happy?' and 'Is that a knife I see before me?' are closed questions, whilst 'What time is it?' and 'How old are you?' are not. This causes a problem of how to classify the short-answer non-yes-or-no questions, which do not fit well with the definition for open questions. A way of handling this is to define 'yes-no' as a sub-class of the short-answer closed question.
Using closed questions
Closed questions have the following characteristics:
- They give you facts.
- They are easy to answer.
- They are quick to answer.
- They keep control of the conversation with the questioner.
This makes closed questions useful in the following situations:
| Usage | Example |
|
As opening questions in a conversation, as it makes it easy for the other person to answer, and doesn't force them to reveal too much about themselves. |
It's great weather, isn't it?
Where do you live? What time is it? |
|
For testing their understanding (asking yes/no questions). This is also a great way to break into a long ramble. |
So, you want to move into our apartment, with your own bedroom and bathroom -- true? |
|
For setting up a desired positive or negative frame of mind in them (asking successive questions with obvious answers either yes or no ). |
Are you happy with your current supplier?
Do they give you all that you need? Would you like to find a better supplier? |
| For achieving closure of a persuasion (seeking yes to the big question). | If I can deliver this tomorrow, will you sign for it now? |
Note how you can turn any opinion into a closed question that forces a yes or no by adding tag questions, such as "isn't it?", "don't you?" or "can't they?", to any statement.
The first word of a question sets up the dynamic of the closed question and signals the easy answer ahead. Note how these are words like: do, would, are, will, if.
Open questions
Definition
An open question can be defined thus:
An open question is likely to receive a long answer.
Although any question can receive a long answer, open questions deliberately seek longer answers, and are the opposite of closed questions.
Using open questions
Open questions have the following characteristics:
- They ask the respondent to think and reflect.
- They will give you opinions and feelings.
- They hand control of the conversation to the respondent.
This makes open questions useful in the following situations:
| Usage | Example |
|
As a follow-on from closed questions, to develop a conversation and open up someone who is rather quiet. |
What did you do on you holidays?
How do you keep focused on your work? |
| To find out more about a person, their wants, needs, problems, and so on. | What's keeping you awake these days?
Why is that so important to you? |
| To get people to realize the extend of their problems (to which, of course, you have the solution). | I wonder what would happen if your customers complained even more?
Rob Jones used to go out late. What happened to him? |
| To get them to feel good about you by asking after their health or otherwise demonstrating human concern about them. | How have you been after your operation?
You're looking down. What's up? |
Open questions begin with such as: what, why, how, describe.
Using open questions can be scary, as they seem to hand the baton of control over to the other person. However, well-placed questions do leave you in control as you steer their interest and engage them where you want them.
When opening conversations, a good balance is around three closed questions to one open question. The closed questions start the conversation and summarize progress, whilst the open question gets the other person thinking and continuing to give you useful information about them.
A neat trick is to get them to ask you open questions. This then gives you the floor to talk about what you want. The way to achieve this is to intrigue them with an incomplete story or benefit.
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True or False Practice Test
True or False Quiz #1
All trees except pine trees molt their leaves in the fall.
True False
Water is less dense in its liquid state.
True False
Dieting combined with consistent exercise will usually aid in weight loss.
True False
More women suffer from anorexia than men because men don't worry about appearance as much.
True False
In car technology the Japanese far exceed the Americans.
True False
Shakespeare wrote the Bible.
True False
Planets orbiting the sun sometimes eclipse other heavenly bodies.
True False
Hospitals on occasion are good places for the spread of disease.
True False
Most salmon die after spawning.
True False
Stalactites suspend from cave roof tops as well as stalagmites.
True False
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Jill was walking to her class slowly. She was worried ___1___ the History test she would have to ___2___ that morning. As she was reaching the classroom, a piece of paper suddenly fluttered down and ___3___ near her feet. As Jill glanced down at the paper, her heart nearly ___4___ a beat. It was the History test paper complete ___5___ answers ! Jill's very first thought was not to ___6___ anyone about what she had found. She would memorize ___7___ the answers and do extremely ___8___ in the test. After some hard thinking, however, she knew that it would be a very ___9___ thing to do. Besides, it would not be ___10___ to her classmates. In the ___11___ , Jill returned the paper to her History teacher, Miss James. "Thanks, Jill. I have been searching high and ___12___ for it," said the teacher. "I...I've read all the questions ___13___, Miss James," Jill confessed. Miss James ___14___ her not to worry as she would think of new questions for the test. Jill's ___15___ sank. She was half hoping that the test ___16___ be cancelled. Nevertheless, she did her best in the new test later that day. A few days later, the test papers were ___17___ to the class. Go her pleasant surprise, Jill discovered that she had ___18___ eighty marks. "You know something," she told her friends. "I could easily have scored ___19___ marks if I had cheated on this test. But I wouldn't be as pleased as I am ___20___ with the eighty marks I obtained." |
| Answers |
| 1. about 2. take 3. landed 4. missed 5. with 6. tell 7. all 8. well 9. dishonest 10. fair 11. end 12. low 13. already 14. told 15. heart 16. would 17. returned 18. scored 19. full 20. now |
Close Test Passage
After months of colder weather, the days get longer, the buds (1) ............ in the trees, birds sing, and the world (2) ............ a green dress. Spring passes (3) ............ summer. Everyone knows that summer will not (4) ............ . The power of all the wisest men and women in the world cannot keep it for us. The corn becomes ripe, the leaves turn brown and then drop to the ground, (5) ............ the world changes its green dress for a dress of autumn colors.
1.
A. fall off
B. take up
C. put off
D. come out
E. bring down
2.
A. looks after
B. puts on
C. carries on
D. comes round
E. deals with
3.
A. into
B. by
C. from
D. on
E. out of
4.
A. forego
B. evaluate
C. succumb
D. last
E. evolve
5.
A. yet
B. therefore
C. since
D. whereas
E. and
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Matching Questions |
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Matching test items, along with true-false and multiple choice, are selection items. They are specialized for use when measuring the student's ability to identify the relationship between a set of similar items, each of which has two components, such as words and their definitions, symbols and their meanings, dates and events, people and their accomplishments, etc. Of the two objectives listed below, only the second one is appropriate for a matching item Objective A: Students will be able to explain the process of photosynthesis. Objective B: Students will be able to identify primary characters in novels they read. In measuring accomplishment of objective A, the question would probably be one calling for the student to write a response. In contrast, Objective B states that the students will be able to "identify" primary characters. This implies some type of selection question in which the answers are provided, and the task of the student is recognition. The rest of the objective (primary characters in novels they read) indicates a series of novels, each with its respective primary character. One matching item can replace several true-false or short answer items (and require less reading for the students). Matching items are generally easy to write and score when the test content and objectives are suitable for matching questions. Possible difficulties in using matching items may arise due to poor student handwriting or printing, or students' being able to guess correct answers through the process of elimination. In developing matching items, there are two columns of material (Example 1).The items in the column on the left (Column A) are usually called premises and assigned numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.). Those in the column on the right (Column B) are called responses and designated by capital letters, as in Example 1. Capital letters are used rather than lower case letters in case some students have reading problems. Also there are apt to be fewer problems in scoring the student's handwritten responses if capital letters are used. |
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Choose the word which best completes the sentence.
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The long dark days and lack of a job made him feel _________. a) alarmed b) excited c) depressed d) satisfied In Sweden, public ________ of official documents is widespread. a) agony b) defy c) scrutiny d) litany With her red hair and lively, outgoing manner, she was a _________ character. a) ugly b) tearful c) flamboyant d) secretive The Government is hoping to __________ on those working in the black economy. a) clamp up b) clamp on c) clamp at d) clamp down A radical change in social policy could be in the __________ if Labour wins the election. a) upping b) dubbing c) scoffing d) offing
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gap-fill
( gap-fills plural ) In language teaching, a gap-fill test is an exercise in which words are removed from a text and replaced with spaces. The learner has to fill each space with the missing word or a suitable word
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Multiple choice is a form of assessment in which respondents are asked to select the best possible answer (or answers) out of the choices from a list. The multiple choice format is most frequently used in educational testing, in market research, and in elections, when a person chooses between multiple candidates, parties, or policies. Multiple choice testing is particularly popular in the United States. If guessing an answer, there's usually a 25 percent chance of getting it correct on a 4 answer choice question.[1]
Although E. L. Thorndike developed an early multiple choice test, Frederick J. Kelly was the first to use such items as part of a large scale assessment.[2] While Director of the Training School at Kansas State Normal School (now Emporia State University) in 1915, he developed and administered the Kansas Silent Reading Test. Soon after, Kelly became the third Dean of the College of Education at the University of Kansas. The first all multiple choice, large scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence and more specifically theaptitudes of World War I military recruits.
The items of a multiple choice test are often colloquially referred to as "questions," but this is a misnomer because many items are not phrased as questions. For example, they can be presented as incomplete statements, analogies, or mathematical equations. Thus, the more general term "item" is
a more appropriate label. Items are stored in an item bank.
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Multiple-Choice Tests
A multiple-choice test usually has dozens of questions or "items." For each question, the test- taker is supposed toselect the "best" choice among a set of four or five options. (They are sometime called "selected-response tests.") For example:
What causes night and day?
A. The earth spins on its axis.
B. The earth moves around the sun.
C. Clouds block out the sun's light.
D. The earth moves into and out of the sun's shadow.
E. The sun goes around the earth.
(Source: P. M. Sadler, "Psychometric Models of Student Conceptions in Science," Journal of Research in Science Teaching (1998. V. 35, N. 3, pp. 265-296).)
The "wanted" answer is "A." The other answer options are called "distractors."
Most standardized tests, including state exams and most commercial achievement tests, are made up primarily of multiple-choice items. A few state tests have a quarter, a half or even more "open-ended" (or "constructed-response") items, usually short answer questions. These ask a student to write and perhaps explain, not just select, an answer. Many short-answer questions are not much more than multiple-choice items without the answer options, and they share many of the limits and problems of multiple-choice items.
Are multiple-choice tests "objective"?
Test-makers often promote multiple-choice tests as "objective." This is because there is no human judgement in the scoring, which usually is done by machine. However, humans decide what questions to ask, how to phrase questions, and what "distractors" to use. All these are subjective decisions that can be biased in ways that unfairly reward or harm some test-takers. Therefore, multiple-choice tests are not really objective.
Any uses of test results involve additional human decisions, including such things as setting a "cut-off" or passing-level score on a test. Some people also claim multiple-choice tests avoid the subjective views of any one teacher, who may be biased or have low expectations. This is true, but there are many ways to address these problems, such as by having independent groups of teachers and others review student essays, projects, portfolios or other more comprehensive forms of assessment.
What can multiple-choice items be used for?
Multiple-choice items are best used for checking whether students have learned facts and routine procedures that have one, clearly correct answer. However, an item may have two reasonable answer options. Therefore, test directions usually ask test takers to select the "best" answer. If, on a reading test, a student selected a somewhat plausible answer, does it mean that she cannot read, or that she does not see things exactly the way the testmaker does?
In some subjects, carefully written multiple-choice items with good distractors can fairly accurately distinguish students who grasp a basic concept from those who do not. Look again at the "night and day" question. Those who don't quite get it often are attracted by answer B. Those who have little or no knowledge usually select C, D or E.
Multiple-choice and critical thinking
It is possible to get multiple-choice items correct without knowing much or doing any real thinking. Because the answers are in front of the student, some people call these tests "multiple- guess." Multiple-choice items can be easier than open-ended questions asking the same thing. This is because it is harder to recall an answer than to recognize it. Test-wise students know that it is sometimes easier to work backwards from the answer options, looking for the one that best fits. It also is possible to choose the "right" answer for the wrong reason or to simply make a lucky guess.
Some people claim that multiple-choice tests can be useful for measuring whether students can analyze material. This item was released by test publishers as an example of how multiple-choice items supposedly measure "thinking" skills:
Was the infantry invasion of Japan a viable alternative to the use of the atomic bomb to end World War II? Is so, why? If not, why not?
A. Yes; transport ships were available in sufficient numbers.
B. Yes; island defenses in Japan were minimal.
C. No; estimated casualties would have been much greater.*
D. No; Japan was on the verge of having an atomic bomb.
* Wanted answer.
(From Measuring Thinking in the Classroom, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1988, Oak Park, IL.)
Claiming there is one right answer to this complex historical issue actually demonstrates how this sort of question short-circuits the thinking process it claims to measure. Since "C" is the explanation given in most high-school texts for using the bomb, choosing the wanted answer would be a matter of recall for many students. For students who did not recall the textbook response, no information is provided to actually analyze the question and come up with the wanted answer. Beyond that, there remains an intense debate among historians about the justification for the use of the atomic bomb. Thus, what is treated as "true" may not be. A question really asking for critical thinking would have students weigh evidence and defend a position.
Most researchers agree that multiple-choice items are poor tools for measuring the ability to synthesize and evaluate information or apply knowledge to complex problems. In math, for example, they can measure knowledge of basic facts and the ability to apply standard procedures and rules. Carefully written multiple-choice questions also can measure somewhat more complex mathematical knowledge such as integrating information or deciding which mathematical procedures to use to solve problems. However, as students move toward solving non-routine problems, analyzing, interpreting, and making mathematical arguments, multiple-choice questions are not useful.
In sum, multiple-choice items are an inexpensive and efficient way to check on factual ("declarative") knowledge and routine procedures. However, they are not useful for assessing critical or higher order thinking in a subject, the ability to write, or the ability to apply knowledge or solve problems.
Informing instruction
Even with carefully written distractors, as in the "night and day" example, it is often hard to know why a student got a question wrong or right. But unless a teacher has that information, the test result is not useful for improving instruction for the individual.
A standardized multiple-choice test may point to some broad areas that need improvement. For example, a test may show that students in a school or district need to improve on double-digit multiplication. However, the tests do not provide information that will help teachers do a better job of teaching double-digit multiplication because they do not show why the class generally did not do well.
If students were asked to explain how they got their answers, then their teachers would have a lot more information. This information is vital for teachers to make instruction more effective. For example, students who did not know why "the earth spins on its axis" is the correct answer to "night and day" but happened to guess the correct answer would be unable to explain why. Their mistaken views would be visible to the teacher, who could then address the misunderstanding and clarify the concept.
Dangers of relying on multiple-choice tests.
Relying on multiple-choice tests as a primary method of assessment is educationally dangerous for many reasons:
1) Because of cultural assumptions and biases, the tests may be inaccurate. (Of course, other kinds of assessments also can be biased.) Assuming the test is accurate because of its supposedly "objective" format may lead to making bad decisions about how best to teach a student.
2) Students may recognize or know facts or procedures well enough to score high on the test, but not be able to think about the subject or apply knowledge, even though being able to think and apply is essential to "knowing" any subject. Therefore, the conclusion or inference that a student "knows" history or science because she got a high score on a multiple-choice test may be false.
3) What is easily measurable may not be as important as what is not measurable or is more difficult to measure. A major danger with high stakes multiple-choice and short-answer tests -- tests that have a major impact on curriculum and instruction -- is that only things that are easily measured are taught.
4) Since the questions usually must be answered quickly and have only one correct answer, students learn that problems for which a single answer cannot be chosen quickly are not important.
5) When schools view multiple-choice tests as important, they often narrow their curriculum to cover only what is on the exams. For example, to prepare for multiple-choice tests, curriculum may focus on memorizing definitions and recognizing (naming) concepts. This will not lead students to understand important scientific principles, grasp how science is done, and think about how science affects their lives.
6) When narrow tests define important learning, instruction often gets reduced to "drill and kill" - - lots of practice on questions that look just like the test. In this case, students often get no chance to read real books, to ask their own questions, to have discussions, to challenge texts, to conduct experiments, to write extended papers, to explore new ideas -- that is, to think about and really learn a subject.
Should multiple-choice tests be used at all?
The decision to use multiple-choice tests or include multiple-choice items in a test should be based on what the purpose of the test is and the uses that will be made of its results. If the purpose is only to check on factual and procedural knowledge, if the test will not have a major effect on overall curriculum and instruction, and if conclusions about what students know in a subject will not be reduced to what the test measures, then a multiple-choice test might be somewhat helpful -- provided it is unbiased, well written, and related to the curriculum. If they substantially control curriculum or instruction, or are the basis of major conclusions that are reported to the public (e.g., how well students read or know math), or are used to make important decisions about students, then multiple-choice tests are quite dangerous.
Students should learn to think and apply knowledge. Facts and procedures are necessary for thinking, but schools should not be driven by multiple-choice testing into minimizing or eliminating thinking and problem-solving. Therefore, classroom assessments and standardized tests should not rely more than a small amount on multiple-choice or short-answer items. Instead, other well-designed forms of assessment should be implemented and their used properly. Most .importantly, all teachers need to be capable of high quality assessment to help their students learn
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Submitted by admin on 7 February, 2005 - 12:00
I will now go on to look at testing and elicitation and in particular some different question types and their functions, advantages and disadvantages.
- Types of test
- Types of taskOther techniques
- Multiple choice
- Transformation
- Gap-filling
- Matching
- Cloze
- True / False
- Open questions
- Error correction
Types of test
Before writing a test it is vital to think about what it is you want to test and what its purpose is. We must make a distinction here between proficiency tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests and prognostic tests.
- A proficiency test is one that measures a candidate's overall ability in a language, it isn't related to a specific course.
- An achievement test on the other hand tests the students' knowledge of the material that has been taught on a course.
- A diagnostic test highlights the strong and weak points that a learner may have in a particular area.
- A prognostic test attempts to predict how a student will perform on a course.
There are of course many other types of tests. It is important to choose elicitation techniques carefully when you prepare one of the aforementioned tests.
Types of task
There are many elicitation techniques that can be used when writing a test. Below are some widely used types with some guidance on their strengths and weaknesses. Using the right kind of question at the right time can
be enormously important in giving us a clear understanding of our students' abilities, but we must also be aware of the limitations of each of these task or question types so that we use each one appropriately.
Multiple choice
Choose the correct word to complete the sentence.
Cook is ________________today for being one of Britain's most famous explorers.
a) recommended b) reminded c) recognised d) remembered
In this question type there is a stem and various options to choose from. The advantages of this question type are that it is easy to mark and minimises guess work by having multiple distracters. The disadvantage is that it
can be very time-consuming to create, effective multiple choice items are surprisingly difficult to write. Also it takes time for the candidate to process the information which leads to problems with the validity of the exam. If a low level candidate has to read through lots of complicated information before they can answer the question, you may find you are testing their reading skills more than their lexical knowledge.
- Multiple choice can be used to test most things such as grammar, vocabulary, reading, listening etc. but you must remember that it is still possible for students to just 'guess' without knowing the correct answer.
Transformation
Complete the second sentence so that it has the same meaning as the first.
'Do you know what the time is, John?' asked Dave.
Dave asked John __________ (what) _______________ it was.
This time a candidate has to rewrite a sentence based on an instruction or a key word given. This type of task is fairly easy to mark, but the problem is that it doesn't test understanding. A candidate may simply be able to rewrite sentences to a formula. The fact that a candidate has to paraphrase the whole meaning of the sentence in the example above however minimises this drawback.
- Transformations are particularly effective for testing grammar and understanding of form. This wouldn't be an appropriate question type if you wanted to test skills such as reading or listening.
Gap-filling
Complete the sentence.
Check the exchange ______________ to see how much your money is worth.
The candidate fills the gap to complete the sentence. A hint may sometimes be included such as a root verb that needs to be changed, or the first letter of the word etc. This usually tests grammar or vocabulary. Again
this type of task is easy to mark and relatively easy to write. The teacher must bear in mind though that in some cases there may be many possible correct answers.
- Gap-fills can be used to test a variety of areas such as vocabulary, grammar and are very effective at testing listening for specific words.
Matching
Match the word on the left to the word with the opposite meaning.
| fat | old |
| young | tall |
| dangerous | thin |
| short | safe |
With this question type, the candidate must link items from the first column to items in the second. This could be individual words, words and definitions, parts of sentences, pictures to words etc. Whilst it is easy to mark, candidates can get the right answers without knowing the words, if she has most of the answers correct she knows the last one left must be right. To avoid this, have more words than is necessary.
- Matching exercises are most often used to test vocabulary.
Cloze
Complete the text by adding a word to each gap.
This is the kind _____ test where a word _____ omitted from a passage every so often. The candidate must _____ the gaps, usually the first two lines are without gaps.
This kind of task type is much more integrative as candidates have to process the components of the language simultaneously. It has also been proved to be a good indicator of overall language proficiency. The teacher must be careful about multiple correct answers and students may need some practice of this type of task.
- Cloze tests can be very effective for testing grammar, vocabulary and intensive reading.
True / False
Decide if the statement is true or false.
England won the world cup in 1966. T/F
Here the candidate must decide if a statement is true or false. Again this type is easy to mark but guessing can result in many correct answers. The best way to counteract this effect is to have a lot of items.
- This question type is mostly used to test listening and reading comprehension.
Open questions
Answer the questions.
Why did John steal the money?
Here the candidate must answer simple questions after a reading or listening or as part of an oral interview. It can be used to test anything. If the answer is open-ended it will be more difficult and time consuming to mark and there may also be a an element of subjectivity involved in judging how 'complete' the answer is, but it may also be a more accurate test.
- These question types are very useful for testing any of the four skills, but less useful for testing grammar or vocabulary.
Error Correction
Find the mistakes in the sentence and correct them.
Ipswich Town was the more better team on the night.
Errors must be found and corrected in a sentence or passage. It could be an extra word, mistakes with verb forms, words missed etc. One problem with this question type is that some errors can be corrected in more than one way.
- Error correction is useful for testing grammar and vocabulary as well as readings and listening.
Other Techniques
There are of course many other elicitation techniques such as translation, essays, dictations, ordering words/phrases into a sequence and sentence construction (He/go/school/yesterday).
It is important to ask yourself what exactly you are trying to test, which techniques suit this purpose best and to bear in mind the drawbacks of each technique. Awareness of this will help you to minimise the problems and produce a more effective test
برچسب‌ها:
جعبه لایتنر چیست ؟
يكى از روش هاى مؤثر براى يادگيرى و حفظ كردن مطالب ، استفاده از جعبه لايتنر است .در اينجا نحوه كار با اين جعبه را توضيح مى دهيم و اميدواريم شما با استفاده از اين ابزار ساده و سودمند، بر يادگيرى خود بيفزائيد و در زمان محدودتر باكيفيت بهتر مطالب بيشترى را به خاطر بسپاريد.
جعبه يادگيرى لايتنر:
اين وسيله كه توسط محقق اتريشى آقاى 'سباستين لايتنر' طراحى شده است . مطالب را از حافظه كوتاه مدت شما به حافظه بلند مدتتان منتقل می نمايد. اين گام به گونه اى انجام مى گيردكه شما احساس يك تفكر سخت يا تكرارهاى خسته كننده نخواهيد كرد انسان وقتى ازكارى لذت ببرد ديگر احتياجى نيست تا خود را مجبورکند به آن بپردازد بلكه خود به خود به طرف آن می رود.
اساس علمی:
اين وسيله بر اساس تجارب روانشناسى و تربيتى زير طراحى شده است .
ا) اگر انسان يك مطلب يا مفهوم را به خوبى فرا بگيرد بعد از يك روز تا يك هفته تقريبا45% آنرا فراموش می كند و بعد از يك ماه 80% آن فراموش مى شود به اين ترتيب فقط 20% وارد حافظه دراز مدت مى شود. جعبه لايتنر برنامه را به گونه اى تنظيم مى كند تا با بيشترين تكرار در قسمت خطرناك منحنى فراموشی، مطالب به حافظأ دراز مدت هدايت شود.
) آزمايش اسكينر: اين آزمايش مى گويد هركاه بلافاصله بعد از هر عملى پاداش دريافت شود، باعث تشديد آن عمل مى شود. وقتى دربازى موفقيتى به دست مى آورید پاداش می گيريد كه همان امتياز بيشتر است . اين امتياز بيشتر چون به شما رضايت می دهد تمايل پيدا مى كنيدكه كماكان با شدت بيشترى به بازى ادامه دهيد.
از اين خاصيت در جعبه يادگيرى "لايتنر" استفاده شده است ، يعنى شما هر بام كه چيزى را ياد مى گيريد به قسمت بعدى مى رويد امتياز مى گيريد و همين باعث مى شود دائما از آن با تمايل قلبى استفاده كنيد.
مزاياى اين وسيله :
ا) از تكرارهاى غير ضرورى جلوگيرى مى كند، به عبارتى ديگر شما براى آنكه مطلبى را از حافظه كوتاه مدت به بلند مدت منتقل كنيد نيازمند تكرارهاى مكررهستيد، اما وقتى يك صفحه را براى چندمين بام مطالعه می كنيد مطالبى را كه بلد هستيد مجددا مى خوانيد در صورتيكه ديگر لزومى به تكرار آن نيست و تكرار بى جهت آن باعث اتلاف وقت و انرژى، بى حوصلگى و در نتيجه دلزدكى شما مى شود اما جعبه لايتنر فقط مطالب چموش و رام نشدنى را شكاركرده و ما را وادار به تكرار آن مى كند.
2) اگر شما آنرا براى مدتى هم رها سازيد هيچ اختلالى دركار يادگيرى ايجاد نمى شود جز آنكه مجبور مى شويدكارت ها را بار ديگر مرور كنيد. البته توصيه ما اين است كه كار را به طور منظم ادامه دهيد.
3) باگرفتن امتياز و مشاهده پيوسته موفقيت ، يادگيرى براى شما از يك حالت خسته كننده به يك بازى لذت بخش و دل نشين تبديل مى شود.
چگونه از جعبه لايتنر استفاده كنيم ؟
جعبه لايتنر يك قوطى دربازاست كه ازپنج قسمت تشكيل مى شود. (شكل زیر )
عرض قسمت هاى مختلف به ترتيب یک ، دو ، چهار ، هشت و پانزده سانتی متراست . اين جعبه را مى توانيد خودتان با مقوا و مثلا از قوطی پودر لباس شویى،كفش و ... درست كنيد، يا اينكه جعبه آماده را از بیرون خریداری کنید.
اين روش را مى توانيد براى يادگيرى لغات زبان انگليسى، فارسى، عربى و يا هر فرمول يا مطلب درسی فرارى كه مى خواهيد به خاطر بسپاريد به كارگيريد.
هر موضوع ياد گرفتنى را روى يك برگ كاغذ (فيش ) مى نويسيد. دقت كنيد كه روى هر فيشیک موضوع یادگرفتنی را بنويسيد.يعنى لغت را در یک روی کاغذ و جواب آن رادر روی دیگر برگه مى نويسيد. در روى يك برگه بیش از یک موضوع راننويسيد. مى توانيد در يك روى برگه مثلا سمت چپ يك موازنه شيمياى را بنويسيد و در پشت آن نتيجه و سمت راست موازنه رابنويسيد هم چنين مى توانيد براى فرمولهاى فيزيك يا رياضى يا مطالب درس زيست شناسی و به طوركلى براى هر يك از مطالب حفظ كردنى اين روa را به كارگيريد. البته تا به حال بيشترين استفاده از اين روش در مورد يادگيرى واژه هاى زبان بوده است .
مراحل كار:
ا.روز اول : تعدادى از برگه ها (فيش ها) را تكميل می كنيد و پس از اينكه هر دو روى برگه را يكى دوبار مرور كرديد برگه ها را در خانه اول جعبه قرار دهيد. مى توانيد هر روز، ده پانزده يا تعداد بيشترى برگه آماده نمائيد. شايد در بعضى روزها هم برگه اى تهيه نكنيد.
2. روز دوم : ابتدا برگه هاى راكه ديروز تهيه كرده بوديد از خانه اول برداريد. سوال ها را از روى برگه بخوانيد و سعى كنيد جواب ها را به خاطر بياوريد آنهایى راكه بلد نبوديد مجددا در خانه اول قرار دهيد وآنهاى راكه بلد بوديد به خانه دوم منتقل كنيد و پشت اين برگه ها يك كاغذ رنگى با ارتفاع بيشتر قرار دهيد.
در پايان ، برگه هایى راكه در روز دوم براى اولين بار تهيه كرده ايد در خانه اول قرار دهيد.
3.روز سوم : به برگه هاى خانه دوم دست نمی زنيد زيرا خانه دوم هنوز تكميل نشده است و ظرفيت دوگروه برگه را دارد. پس باز هم از برگه هاى خانه اول شروع مى كنيد و برگه هاى را كه جواب سوالاتشان را بلد هستيد به خانه دوم منتقل می كنيد و درپشت كاغذ رنگى قرار مى دهيد تا اين برگه ها با برگه هاى روز كذشته مخلوط نشود. برگه هاى كه پاسخشان را بلد نيستيد به همراه برگه هاى جديدى كه امروز تهيه كرده ايد در خانه اول قرار دهيد.
3.روز چهارم :
الف ) امروز ابتدا از خانه دوم شروع مى كنيد زيرا خانه دوم ظرفيت دوگروه بركه را دارد و ظرفيت آن روز قبل تكميل شده است . ولى فقط برگه هاى رديف جلوتر را برمى داريد. (يعنى برگه هايى كه جلوى كاغذ رنگى قرار دارند ) سؤالات روى اين برگه ها را مطالعه مى كنيد و اگر جواب درست داديد برگه ها را در داخل خانه سوم و در ابتداى آن قرار مى دهيد و پشت اين برگه ها يك كاغذ رنگى با ارتفاع بيشتر قرار مى دهيد تا فاصله گذارى مشخص شود ضمنا برگه هاى باقى مانده در خانه دوم را جلوتر مى بريد وكاغذ رنگى را در پشت اين برگه ها مى گذاريد.
ب ) سپس به خانه اول برگرديد و برگه هاى آ ن را برداريد و آنهايى را كه بلد هستيد در خانه دوم و پشت كاغذ رنگى قرار می دهید
ج ) برگه ها يى كه پاسخ آ نها را بلد نيستند و همچنين برگه هاى جد يد راكه تهيه كرده ا يد در خانه اول مى گذاريد.
5. خانه سوم براى چهارگروه برگه در نظر گرفته شده و بايد چهار روز صبر كنيد تا ا ين قسمت تكميل شود البته هر روز پس از ورود برگه ها از خانه دوم به خانه سوم پشت ا ين برگه ها يك كاغذ رنگى مى گذاريد تا قسمت سوم هم به تدريج و پس از چهار روز تكميل شود.
6. خانه چهارم جاى هشت گروه برگه را دارد و هشت روز پس از ورود اولين برگه ها پر خواهد شد. خانه پنجم جاى پانزده گروه برگه را دارد و پانزده روز پس از ورود اولين برگه ها به ا ين قسمت تكميل مى شود. يعنى اگر شما در كارتان وقفه اى نينداز يد 30روز طول خواهد كشيد تا هر 5 قسمت جعبه لايتنر تكميل شود. توجه داريد كه بين هر دو گروه برگه يک كاغذ رنگی با ارتفاع بیشتر قرار مى دهيد تا برگه هاى مربوط به روزهاى مختلف با يكد يگر مخلوط نشوند از روز سی و يكم به تدر يج برگه ها از داخل جعبه خارج مى شود و شما مى توانيد اين برگه ها را بايگانى نمائيد زيرا پس از 5 بار تكرار موفقيت آميز هر برگه در زمان های متفاوت مى توانيد مطمئن باشيدكه آ ن موضوع را براى هميشه فراگرفته ايد و هيچگاه آ نرا فراموش نخواهيدكرد.
نتيجه : به ا ين ترتيب شما با روشى كه شبيه بازى انفرادى است و در اوقات فراغت مى توانيد باكمتر ين ميزان اتلاف وقت آ نچه را كه يادگيرى اش برا يتان مشكل تر است بيشتر تكرار كنيد و زود تر و بهتر و براى هميشه به خاطر بسپار يد و آ نچه را كه زود تر ياد مى گير يد فقط با 5 بار تكرار براى هميشه فرا بگير يد.
تذكر: روش استفاده صحيح از جعبه لايتنر به همين ترتيبى است كه در ا ين نامه توضيح داد يم اميدوار يم شما نيز با به كارگيرى ا ين روش در حفظ كردن و به خاطر سپارى مطالب درسى موفق شو يد.
يك نكته مهم : در هر مرحله كه به سوال يك برگه نتوانستيد جواب دهيد با يد آ ن برگه را بهاولین خانه برگردانيد.
پاسخ به يك سؤال : يكى از داوطلبان كه با جديت از جعبه لايتنر استفاده مى كرد با نگرانى سؤالى را مطرح كرد، او پرسيد: مگر شما نگفته بوديد وقتى يك برگه را پس از پنج بار تكرار در جعبه لايتنر از جعبه بيرون گذاستيم آن موضوع براى هميشه در حافظه مان بايد ثبت شود. جواب دادم ، بله همينطور است . او ادامه داد ولى من برگه هايى راكه يك ماه پيش از جعبه بيرون گذاشته ام بار ديگر مطالعه كردم و متوجه شدم جواب آنها را فراموش كرده ام . مى دانيد مشكل اين داوطلب چه بود؟
او هرباركه جواب برگه اى را بلد نبود آن برگه را به خانه قبلى برمى گرداند در صورتيكه لازم بود آن برگه را به خانه اول برگرداند و مجددا تمام مسير را از اول طى كند. شما بايد بتوانيد يك برگه را بدون هيچگونه اشتباه در پنج بار تكرار در فواصل تعيين شده به درستى پاسخ دهيد، يعنى حتى يكبار هم اشتباه نكنيد و اگر اشتباه كرديد آن برگه را به اولين خانه برگردانید
یک تجربه : من خود از این جعبه به طور مداوم برای لغات زبان استفاده کردم ، باید بگویم 90% مطالب در ذهنم مانده ایت و فقط 10 % مطالب در ذهنم تثبیت نشده است . آن هم به خاطر این بود که در بعضی از روز ها از آن استفاده نکردم.
برای تهیه برگه مطالب می توانید یک برگه A4 را با تاکردن به 16 قسمت قسیم کرده ( مطابق شکل ) و آن را با قیچی ببرید و یا اینکه آن را از بیرون خریداری نمایید.
جعبهٔ لایتنر یک جعبه پنج‌خانه‌ای است که برای یادگیری استفاده می‌شود. لایتنر در واقع روش علمییادگیری است که بر مبنای آن آموخته‌ها از حافظهٔ کوتاه‌مدت به حافظهٔ بلندمدت منتقل می‌شوند که این ابزار و روش استفاده از آن را در دههٔ ۱۹۷۰ سباستین لایتنر اختراع کرد.
اساس علمی
در مجموع، ماندگارترین روش تکرار را برای انتقال به حافظهٔ بلندمدّت پیشنهاد می‌کند؛ ابینگ هاوس روش مرور را برای تثبیت کردن آن در حافظهٔ بلندمدّت پیشنهاد می‌کند، و بوریس فردریک اسکینر روش جعبهٔ لایتنر را ابداع کرد.
پاداش‌های فوری اسکینر
بوریس فردریک اسکینر با آزمایش‌هایی علمی نشان داد «هرگاه به یک رفتار بلافاصله و به صورت آنی پاداشی داده شود آن رفتار تکرار خواهد شد.» لذا هر بار که شما به معنای لغتی پرسیده‌شده، صحیح جواب دهید، احساس رضایتی که بلافاصله ایجاد می‌شود شما را به ادامهٔ این کار تشویق می‌کند، تمرکز شما را بر کار افزایش می‌دهد و شما را به موضوع علاقه‌مند می‌کند. اینها همان عوامل ارتقای بازده یادگیری اند.
قاعدهٔ منحنی فراموشی ابینگ هاووس
ابینگ هاووس نشان داد ۲۰ دقیقه پس از حفظ کردن مقداری واج‌های بی‌معنا ۸۰٪ آنها فراموش می‌شوند و بقیه هرگز فراموش نمی‌شوند. ضمناً سرعت فراموشی ابتدا سریع است و به مرور کند می‌شود و وقتی ۲۰٪ مطالب در خاطر ماند صفر می‌شود. ضمن این که مرور مطالب قبلاً حفظ‌شده باعث کاهش این سرعت به نصف و حتی بهتر از آن (در صورت خوب حفظ کردن) می‌گردد.
لذا اگر معنی لغتهای زبان خارجی را که چندان هم بی‌معنا نیستند حفظ کنیم، این روند فراموشی بیش از یک روز طول می‌کشد و با پنج بار مرور موفّق به مقدار ناچیزی می‌رسد و در صورت کاربردی بودن، مادام‌العمر در ذهن خواهد ماند.
جعبهٔ لایتنر
جعبهٔ لایتنر جعبه‌ای ۶ در ۳۰ سانتیمتری ست که ۵ خانه دارد که اندازهٔ هر یک از آنها بر اساس منحنی فراموشی دو برابر قبلی ست، به صورتی که خانهٔ شمارهٔ یک، ۱ واحد، خانهٔ شمارهٔ دو، ۲ واحد، خانهٔ شمارهٔ سه، ۴ واحد، خانهٔ شمارهٔ چهار، ۸ واحد و خانهٔ شمارهٔ پنج، ۱۶واحد است. می‌توانید آن را بسازید، یا خریداری کنید.
هر خانهٔ اصلی با تعدادی «واسط» یا «جداکننده» به قسمت‌های کوچک‌تری تقسیم می‌شود. پس خانهٔ دوم، سوم، چهارم و پنجم، باید به ترتیب به دو، چهار، هشت و شانزده قسمت تقسیم شوند. برای تهیهٔ آنها از مقواهای کلفت رنگی تیره و زیبا به ابعاد ۵٫۵ در ۸ سانتیمتر استفاده کنید، تا بادوام و تمیز بمانند. استفاده از جعبهٔ لایتنر سی‌خانه‌ای با دیواره‌های اصلی بلندتر توصیه می‌شود.
فلش‌کارت‌ها برگه‌های کوچکی اند که در یک طرف آنها سؤال (لغت) و در طرف دیگرشان جواب (معنی لغت) نوشته می‌شوند. برای تهیهٔ آنها با تا کردن کاغذ A۴ به دو قسمت، می‌توانید کاغذ A۵ سپس A۶ و در نهایت A۷ به دست آورید که برای این کار مناسب اند. انتخاب دیگر خرید آن‌هاست.
روش آغاز کار
نکته: به قسمت آخر هر خانهٔ اصلی قسمت اصلی می‌گوییم و به سایر قسمت‌ها قسمت فرعی
- روز اول
- در یک طرف کارتها سؤال (لغت) و در طرف دیگرشان جواب (معنی لغت) را بنویسید.
- سؤال و جواب‌ها را آن قدر مرور کنید تا حفظ شوید.
- تمامی کارتها را در خانهٔ اوّل (بخش ۱) قرار دهید.
- روز دوم
- همهٔ سؤال‌های خانهٔ اول را یک‌به‌یک مرور کرده و پاسخ دهید.
- کارت سوالی را که صحیح پاسخ گفتید به خانهٔ اصلی قسمت دوم ببرید.
- کارت سوالی را که نادرست پاسخ گفتید به خانهٔ اصلی اول برگردانید.
- روز سوم
- از خانهٔ دوم قسمت اول شروع کنید. همهٔ کارتها را بدون مرور یک قسمت جلو ببرید. زیرا زمان مرور آنها فرداست، نه امروز.
- در مورد خانهٔ اول مانند روز قبل عمل کنید.
- روز چهارم
- از آخرین قسمت خانهٔ دوم شروع کنید: سوال‌های روی کارتها را بخوانید. اگر بلدید کارت را به خانهٔ بعد منتقل کنید. و گرنه آن را از جعبهٔ لایتنر خارج کنید! زیرا برای حفظ شدن بلند مدّت باید کارت یک بار به طور کامل همهٔ خانه‌ها را با موفّقیت طی کند. بدون این که در میان راه با شکست مواجه شود. به همین دلیل بهتر است همواره با تعداد کارت نسبتاً کم و وقت و علاقهٔ کافی حفظ کنید.
- حال به سراغ قسمت قبلی رفته و همهٔ کارتها را یک خانه بدون مرور به جلو ببرید.
- اکنون نوبت خانهٔ اوّل است. طبق معمول عمل کنید.
- در نهایت همهٔ کارتهایی را که در اثر فراموشی از جعبه خارج شده‌اند به جعبه باز گردانید.
- توجه: نگران خارج شدن کارتها از جعبه نباشید. بلکه خوشحال باشید که به این ترتیب لغت‌هایی را که بلد نیستید بیشتر مرور خواهید کرد و لغت‌هایی را که بلدید کمتر. ضمن این که این بار از پس آنها بر می‌آیید.
روش کلی کار
- هر روز از آخرین قسمت شروع کنید.حال به سراغ قسمت قبل از آن بروید و همین کارها را برایش انجام دهید.
- اگر قسمت فرعی ست، برگه‌های آن قسمت را به قسمت بعد منتقل کنید.
- اگر قسمت اصلی ست، برگه‌های آن قسمت را بردارید و از خود بپرسید. آنهایی را که بلدید به قسمت بعد منتقل کنید. آنهایی را که بلد نیستید از جعبه خارج کنید.
- اگر این آخرین قسمت است و قسمتی بعد از آن نیست، آفرین! زیرا شما موفّق شده‌اید این لغت‌ها را به خاطر بسپارید.
- آنقدر ادامه دهید تا به قسمت اوّل برسید.
- پس از پایان جابجا کردن همهٔ قسمت‌های فرعی و مرور همهٔ قسمت‌های اصلی (که حدّاکثر ۵ تا در یک روز اند، لغت‌هایی را که از جعبه خارج شده‌اند با تکرار و کاربرد و روش‌های دیگر به خوبی حفظ کنید و به خانهٔ اول بیفزایید.
- حال اگر مایلید برگه‌های جدیدی را که نوشته‌اید وارد جعبه کنید، آنها را هم حفظ کرده و به خانهٔ اول بیفزایید.[[مدیا:|برای درک بهتر مساله به این تصویر بنگرید]]
یكی از روش‌های مؤثر یادگیری مطالب ،استفاده از جعبه لایتنر است.
در اینجا نحوه كار با این جعبه را توضیح می دهیم و امیدواریم شما با استفاده از این ابزار ساده و سودمند ، بر یادگیری خود بیافزایید و در زمان محدودتر با كیفیت بهتر مطالب بیشتری را به خاطر بسپارید.
این وسیله توسط محقق اتریشی " سباستین لایتنر" طراحی شده و مطالب را از حافظه كوتاه مدت شما به حافظه بلند مدت منتقل می نماید. یادگیری به كمك این روش شما را از تكرار مطالب بی نیاز می سازد. همین امر یادگیری را شیرین و جذاب می كند.
بنا به روال گذشته مباحث علمی و زیر ساختی مقالات را با رنگ متفاوت می نویسم تا خوانندگان گرامی برای جلوگیری از اتلاف وقت از آن بگذرند. لیكن دانستن آن برای معلمان ، مشاوران ، برنامه ریزان آموزشی و درسی و كلیه كسانی كه به مباحث روان شناختی و تربیتی علاقه مند خالی از لطف نیست.
اساس علمی:
این وسیله بر اساس تجارب روان شناسی و تربیتی زیر طراحی شده است:
1. اگر انسان یك مطلب یا مفهوم را به خوبی فرا بگیرد بعد از یك روز تا یك هفته تقریباً 45% آن را فراموش می كند و بعد از یك ماه 80% آن فراموش می شود. به این ترتیب فقط 20% مطلب وارد حافظه درازمدت می شود. جعبه لایتنر برنامه را به گونه ای تنظیم می كند تا با بیشترین تكرار در قسمت خطرناك منحنی فراموشی ، مطالب به حافظه دراز مدت هدایت شود.
2. قانون یادگیری اسكینر: بر اساس این قانون هرگاه بعد از هر عملی پاداش دریافت شود، انجام آن عمل تشدید خواهد شد. امتیاز بیشتر، پاداش موفقیت در بازی است. این امتیاز شما را علاقمند می كند تا كماكان، با شدت بیشتری به بازی ادامه دهید.
این خاصیت در جعبه یادگیری لایتنر استفاده شده است، یعنی فرد تنها زمانی به قسمت بعدی می رود كه مطلب را آموخته باشد، این عمل درست مانند امتیاز دادن، فرد را به ادامه فرایند یادگیری تشویق می كند.
مزایای این وسیله:
1. از تكرارهای غیر ضروری جلوگیری می كند: شما برای آنكه مطلبی را از حافظه كوتاه مدت به بلند مدت منتقل كنید نیازمند تكرارهای مكرر هستید. وقتی صفحه ای را برای چندمین بار مطالعه می كنید، مجبورید مطالبی را نیز كه قبلا آموخته‌اید مجددا مرور كنید. در صورتی كه دیگر لزومی به تكرار نیست و تكرار بی جهت آنها باعث اتلاف وقت و انرژی، بی حوصلگی و در نتیجه دل زدگی شما می شود. اما جعبه لایتنر فقط مطالب چموش و رام نشدنی را شكار كرده و ما را وادار به تكرار آنها می كند.
2. اگر شما روند یادگیری را برای مدتی رها سازید، هیچ اختلالی در كار یادگیری ایجاد نمی شود جز آنكه مجبور می شوید كارت‌ها را بار دیگر مرور كنید. البته توصیه ما این است كه كار را به طور منظم ادامه دهید.
3. با گرفتن امتیاز و مشاهده پیوسته موفقیت ، یادگیری برای شما از عملی خسته كننده به یك بازی لذت بخش و دلنشین تبدیل می شود.
چگونه از جعبه لایتنر استفاده كنیم:
جعبه لایتنر یك قوطی در باز است كه از پنج قسمت تشكیل می شود.
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عرض قسمت‌های مختلف به ترتیب 15,8,4,2,1 واحد است. این جعبه را می توانید خودتان با مقوا، جعبه یا قوطی‌های پودر لباسشویی ، كفش و... درست كنید، یا اینكه از بازار تهیه نمایید.
این روش را می توانید برای یادگیری لغات زبان انگلیسی و فارسی و یا هر فرمول یا مطالب درسی فراری كه می خواهید به خاطر بسپارید به كار گیرید.
هر موضوع یادگرفتنی را روی یك برگ كاغذ (فیش) بنویسید. دقت كنید كه روی هر فیش تنها یك موضوع یادگرفتنی نوشته شود. یعنی لغت را در یك روی كاغذ و جواب آن را در روی دیگر برگه می نویسید.
مراحل كار:
1. روز اول: تعدادی از برگه‌ها را تكمیل می كنید و پس از اینكه هر دوروی برگه را یكی دو بار مرور كردید، برگه‌ها را در خانه اول جعبه قرار دهید. می توانید هر روز، ده پانزده یا تعداد بیشتری برگه آماده نمایید . شاید در بعضی روزها هم برگه ای تهیه نكنید.
2. روز دوم: ابتدا برگه‌هایی را كه دیروز تهیه كرده بودید از خانه اول بردارید . سؤالات را از روی برگه بخوانید و سعی كنید جواب‌ها را به خاطر بیاورید. آنهایی را كه بلد نبودید، مجدداً در خانه اول قرار دهید و آنهایی را كه بلد بودید، به خانه دوم منتقل كنید. پشت این برگه‌های خانه دوم یك كاغذ رنگی با ارتفاع بیشتر قرار دهید.
در پایان، برگه‌هایی را كه در روز دوم برای اولین بار تهیه كرده‌اید در خانه اول قرار دهید.
3. روز سوم: به برگه‌های خانه دوم دست نمی زنید زیرا خانه دوم هنوز تكمیل نشده است و ظرفیت دو گروه برگه را دارد. پس باز هم از برگه‌های خانه اول شروع می كنید و برگه‌هایی را كه جواب سؤالاتشان را بلد هستید به خانه دوم منتقل می نمایید و در پشت كاغذ رنگی قرار می دهید تا این برگه‌ها با برگه‌های روز گذشته مخلوط نشود. برگه‌هایی كه پاسخشان را بلد نیستید به همراه برگه‌های جدیدی كه امروز تهیه كرده‌اید در خانه اول قرار دهید.
4. روز چهارم:
الف. ابتدا از خانه دوم شروع كنید، زیرا خانه دوم ظرفیت دو گروه برگه را دارد و ظرفیت آن روز قبل تكمیل شده است. ولی فقط برگه‌های ردیف جلوتر را بر می دارید . ( یعنی برگه‌هایی كه جلو كاغذ رنگی قرار دارند) سؤالات روی این برگه‌ها را مطالعه می كنید و اگر جواب درست دادید برگه‌ها را در داخل خانه سوم و در ابتدای آن قرار می دهید و پشت این برگه‌ها یك كاغذ رنگی با ارتفاع بیشتر قرار می دهید تا فاصله گذاری مشخص شود. ضمناً برگه‌های باقی مانده در خانه دوم را جلوتر می برید و كاغذ رنگی را در پشت این برگه‌ها می گذارید.
ب. سپس به خانه اول برگردید و برگه‌های آن را بردارید و آنهایی را كه بلد هستید در خانه دوم و پشت كاغذ رنگی قرار دهید.
ج. برگه‌هایی كه پاسخ آنها را بلد نیستید و همچنین برگه‌های جدیدی را كه تهیه كرده‌اید در خانه اول می گذارید.
5 . خانه سوم برای چهار گروه برگه در نظر گرفته شده و باید چهار روز صبر كنید تا این قسمت تكمیل شود . البته هر روز پس از ورود برگه‌ها از خانه دوم به خانه سوم پشت این برگه‌ها یك كاغذ رنگی می گذارید تا قسمت سوم هم به تدریج و پس از چهار روز تكمیل شود.
6. خانه چهارم جای هشت گروه برگه را دارد و هشت روز پس از ورود اولین برگه‌ها پر خواهد شد. خانه پنجم جای پانزده گروه برگه را دارد و شانزده روز پس از ورود اولین برگه‌ها، این قسمت تكمیل می شود. یعنی اگر شما در كارتان وقفه ای نیاندازید سی روز طول خواهد كشید تا هر پنج قسمت جعبه لایتنر تكمیل شود. توجه دارید كه بین هر دو گروه برگه یك كاغذ رنگی با ارتفاع بیشتر قرار می دهید تا برگه‌های مربوط به روزهای مختلف با یكدیگر مخلوط نشوند . از روز سی و یكم به تدریج برگه‌ها از داخل جعبه خارج می شوند و شما می توانید این برگه‌ها را بایگانی نمایید. زیرا پس از پنج بار تكرار موفقیت آمیز هر برگه در زمان‌های متفاوت، می توانید مطمئن باشید كه آن موضوع را برای همیشه فرا گرفته‌اید و هیچگاه آن را فراموش نخواهید كرد.
به این ترتیب شما با روشی كه شبیه بازی انفرادی است، در اوقات فراغت می توانید با كم‌ترین میزان اتلاف وقت آنچه را كه یادگیری اش برایتان مشكل تر است بیشتر تكرار كنید و زودتر و برای همیشه به خاطر بسپارید و آنچه را كه زودتر یاد می گیرید فقط با پنج بار تكرار برای همیشه فرا بگیرید.
نكته مهم: در هر مرحله كه به سؤال یك برگه نتوانستید جواب دهید باید آن را به اولین خانه برگردانید.
حفظ لغات با جعبه لایتنر
جعبه لایتنر یک روش کارآمد برای فراگیری لغات و ... می باشد که در آن از کارتهای نمایش یا همان فلش کارتها به نحو موثری استفاده می شود. این روش که توسط یک ژورنالیست علمی آلمانی به نام سباستین لایتنر (Sebastian Leitner) در دهه هفتاد میلادی ابداع گردید به شما کمک می کند تا بدون تلاش بسیار مطالب را از حافظه کوتاه مدت خود به حافظه بلند مدت منتقل نمایید.
آزمایشات روانشناسان و نیز تجربه نشان می دهد حدود 75% هر آنچه را که ما از بر می کنیم پس از حدود 48 ساعت فراموش می کنیم. حتی پس از 20 دقیقه ممکن است 40% آن را فراموش کنیم!
پس از 8 روز تنها 20% مطالب را در ذهنمان نگه می داریم و در واقع به حافظه درازمدت منتقل می کنیم. ما می توانیم از فراموش کردن لغاتی که قصد بخاطر سپردن آنها را داریم اجتناب کنیم بشرط آنکه آنها را بطور منظم تکرار نماییم.
روش کار
جعبه لایتنر یک جعبه ساده است که از چند خانه تشکیل شده است و خودتان هم می توانید با کمک چوب، مقوا و ... یکی بسازید. خانه شماره 1 از همه کوچکتر و خانه شماره 5 از همه بزرگتر است (مانند شکل بالا).
لغت انگلیسی را روی کارت و معنی (به همراه تلفظ، جمله نمونه و ...) را پشت آن بنویسید. همیشه کارتها را طوری در خانه ها بگذارید که پرسش ها روبروی شما باشد.
شما لغتهای تازه را که روی کارتهای نمایش (فلش کارت) نوشته اید پس از به خاطر سپردن در خانه شماره 1 قرار می دهید. فلش کارتها بر اساس میزان یادگیری شما از یک خانه به خانه دیگر جابجا می شوند. وقتی معنی لغت یک کارت نمایش را بدرستی به خاطر آوردید آن را به خانه شماره بالاتر و پشت بقیه کارتها منتقل می کنید. اگر یک کارت به درستی پاسخ داده نشود باید به خانه اول و پشت بقیه کارتها منتقل شود.
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برگه هایی که به درستی پاسخ داده اید |
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برگه هایی که به درستی پاسخ نداده اید |
خانه ها باید پس از یک زمان مشخص (یا وقتی که پر شده اند) مرور شوند و سپس به خانه های بالاتر یا پایین تر جابجا شوند. خانه شماره 1 هر دفعه باید مرور شود ولی خانه های بالاتر به ترتیب در بازه های زمانی طولانی تر. مثلا خانه شماره 2 یک روز در میان، خانه شماره 3 هر سه روز یکبار، خانه شماره 4 هفته ای یکبار و خانه شماره 5 هر دو هفته یک بار. البته اینها قطعی نیستند و شما با توجه به شرایط آنها را تنظیم می کنید.
بدین ترتیب هر چقدر لغات مرور شده سخت تر به خاطر آورده شود بیشتر مرور خواهد شد و بر عکس. در این روش شما بیشتر وقتتان را صرف مطالعه لغاتی می کنید که سخت تر و چالش برانگیزتر هستند. لغاتی که بخوبی فرا گرفته اید فقط گهگاهی مطالعه خواهند شد تا فراموش نشوند.
کارتهایی که از خانه شماره ۵ با موفقیت بیرون بیایند در حافظه بلند مدت شما خواهند ماند. بدین ترتیب دیگر می توانید با خیال راحت آنها را دور بریزید!
جعبه لایتنر نرم افزاری
علاوه بر جعبه لایتنر فیزیکی، نرم افزارهای مشابهی هم وجود دارند که دقیقا از همان اصول پیروی می کنند، ضمن اینکه از بعضی جهات مزیتهایی هم دارند، از جمله:
• خطر بیرون ریختن کارتها و جابجا و قاطی شدن آنها وجود ندارد.
• ذهن خود را درگیر محاسبات و جابجایی کارتها نمی کنید و خود نرم افزار همه کارها را برای شما انجام می دهد.
• همه چیز در رایانه شما ذخیره می شود و هیچ فضای فیزیکی اشغال نمی شود.
• هیچ محدودیتی در تعداد لغات وجود ندارد و حتی می توان لغات و موضوعات را طبقه بندی کرد.
• امکان افزودن صدا و تصویر به هر لغت جهت فراگیری بهتر لغت و تلفظ وجود دارد.
• همزمان چند نفر می توانند از آن استفاده کنند.
جعبه‌ی لایتنر چیست و چطور یک جعبه لایتنر بسازیم؟
معرفی می‌کنم! جعبه‌ی یادگیری لایتنر =)
چیست؟
یک عدد جعبه است که باهاش می‌تونید n میلیون تا لغت/فرمول/نکته/و… که بخواید، حفظ کنید… باور کنید!
شک نکنید: پشیمون نمیشید
خب. کافیه! بریم سراغ طرز کار جعبه:
↑ عکس از: modir.ir (؟)
جعبه‌ی یادگیری لایتنر، از ۵ خونه تشکیل شده. می‌تونید بخریدش، می‌تونید بسازید ↓
طرز کارش به این صورته که شما به طور روزانه، مطابق یک متد خاص، برگه‌هایی رو درون خونه‌ها قرار میدید و برگه‌های روزهای قبل رو می‌خونید. استفاده از این جعبه به طور معمول روزی بیشتر از ۳۰ دقیقه وقت نمی‌گیره، ولی بازدهی فوق‌العاده‌ای داره.
توصیه‌ام اینه که جعبه رو که درست کردید و روزانه با این آموزش پیش برید. یعنی روز اول قسمت «روز اول» رو بخونید و انجامش بدید و به همین ترتیب تا روز پنجم دیگه خودتون طرز کار رو یاد می‌گیرید. چون اگه الان بخواید همه‌ی روزها رو بخونید ممکنه خوب متوجه نشید.
[learn_more caption="روز اول" state="open"]
روز اول: خب، الان فرض می‌کنیم که شما یک جعبه لایتنر دارید (خریدید یا ساختید) و می‌خواید کار رو شروع کنید.
» هر خونه یک ظرفیت معینی داره. خونه‌ی اول فقط ظرفیت یک گروه برگه رو داره (یکسری که برگه توش بزاریم ظرفیتش تکمیل میشه)؛ خونه‌ی دوم ۲، سوم ۴ و چهارم ۸ و پنجم ۱۶٫ (به عکس نگاه کنید). قبل از هرچیز باید جعبه رو یکبار برای همیشه آماده می‌کنیم. چطوری؟ اینطوری که در هر خونه به تعداد خط‌چین‌های توی عکس کاغذ رنگی قرار میدیم. یعنی مثلا توی خونه‌ی چهارم باید ۷ تا کاغذ رنگی (مقوا یا هرچیز دیگه‌ای که برگه‌هامون رو از هم جدا کنه) قرار بدید.
» بسیار خوب. همونطور که گفتم باید مشخص کنید که چی می‌خواید بخونید. فرض می‌کنیم قراره لغت زبان بخونیم. به تعداد دلخواه، مثلا ۵ تا یا بیشتر کاغذ کوچیک (برگه) برمی‌داریم. روی یک طرف برگه سوال، و روی طرف دیگه جوابش رو می‌نویسیم. مثلا؛ روی یک طرف کاغذ می‌نویسیم: Apple و در طرف دیگه می‌نویسیم سیب. (یا مثلا یک طرف یه فرمول ریاضی، و در طرف دیگه جوابش رو می‌نویسیم و یا هر چیز دلخواه دیگه‌ای که قراره حفظ کنیم)
سایر برگه‌ها رو به همین ترتیب می‌نویسیم و یک دور مرور می‌کنیم تا تو ذهنمون بمونه. بعد توی خونه‌ی اول (کوچک‌ترین خونه) قرار میدیم و جعبه رو کنار می‌زاریم و میریم دنبال کار و زندگی‌مون تا فردا.[/learn_more]
[learn_more caption="روز دوم" state="open"]
روز دوم: الان فرداست و اومدیم سراغ جعبه. خب، کاغذ‌های خونه‌ی اول رو برمی‌داریم، و یکی یکی می‌خونیم. اگر بلد بودیم می‌زاریم تو خونه‌ی دوم، جلوی کاغذ رنگی. (جلوی کاغذ رنگی یعنی قسمتی که جلوی ما قرار داره) اگر بلد نبودیم می‌زاریم سر جاشون. طرز خوندن رو هم که بلدید، به یک طرف کاغذ نگاه می‌کنیم و می‌بینیم که جوابش رو می‌دونم یا نه…
مطابق روز اول، امروز هم به تعداد دلخواه برگه نویسی کرده و به ردیف اول اضافه می‌کنیم. با این حساب الان در ردیف اول دو چیز وجود داره: ۱- برگه‌هایی که بلد نبودیم و به ردیف دوم راه پیدا نکردند ۲- برگه‌های جدیدی که امروز اضافه کردیم (این دوتا می‌ریزیم کلّه هم! یعنی اصلا مهم نیست با هم قاطی بشن)[/learn_more]
[learn_more caption="روز سوم" state="open"]
روز سوم: همیشه کار رو از خونه‌ای شروع می‌کنیم که ظرفیتش تکمیل شده باشه. خونه‌ی دوم ۲ ظرفیتیه. (واضحه دیگه؟ یه ظرفیت پشت کاغذ رنگی و یه ظرفیت جلوی کاغذ رنگی وجود داره) پس هنوز ظرفیتش تکمیل نشده و میریم سراغ ردیف اول که ظرفیتش تکمیل شده. (ردیف اول که کاغذ رنگی نداره کلا یک ظرفیتیه). لغتهای ردیف اول رو برمی‌داریم و می‌خونیم. اگر بلد نبودیم که می‌زاریم سرجاش؛ ولی اگه بلد بودیم برمی‌داریم می‌زاریم بعد از لغتهای ردیف دوم، پشت کاغذ رنگی.[/learn_more]
[learn_more caption="روز چهارم" state="open"]
روز چهارم: به همین سرعت چهار رو گذشت! الان ردیف دوم که دو ظرفیتی هست ظرفیتش تکمیل شده. پس کار رو از اونجا شروع می‌کنیم. همیشه هر ردیفی رو که می‌خوایم شروع بکنیم، لغتهای دسته‌ای رو که بهمون نزدیک تره (یعنی جلوی کاغذ رنگی‌ها قرار داره) برمی‌داریم. الان هم همین کار رو می‌کنیم و لغتهای جلوی کاغذ رنگی رو برمی‌داریم و می‌خونیم. لغتی رو بلد بودیم میره ردیف سوم جلوی همه‌ی کاغذ رنگی‌ها، بلد نبودیم برمی‌گرده خونه‌ی اول. یک کاری که باید اینجا انجام بدیم اینه که کاغذ رنگی رو ببریم پشت برگه‌ها تا برگه‌هایی که الان پشت کاغذ رنگی هستن بیان جلو و فردا خونده بشن.
خب حالا میریم سراغ ردیف اول که ظرفیتش تکمیل شده. لغت‌هاش رو می‌خونیم و اگه بلد بودیم می‌بریم ردیف دوم، پشت کاغذ رنگی. بلد نبودیم می‌زاریم سر جاش. (همیشه و تو همه‌ی ردیف‌ها لغتی رو که بلد نبودیم، برمی‌گردونیم خونه‌ی اول)[/learn_more]
خب. طرز کار مشخص شد دیگه. سایر روزها رو هم به همین روال پیش میریم تا همه‌ی ردیف‌ها تکمیل بشه.
در آخر، لغت‌هایی رو که در خونه‌ی پنجم خونده میشن از جعبه خارج کنید و توی یه پاکت یا قوطی بزارید. این لغت‌ها رو ۱۰۰% بلدید. چند وقت که بگذره، ماجرا به این صورت میشه که از این طرف روزانه لغت اضافه می‌کنید و از اون طرف روزانه خارج. یه لذت خاصی داره این قضیه!
*جعبه‌ی G5 هم – که اینقدر تبلیغش رو می‌شنوید! – دقیقا همینه.. جی.۵ یکسری برگه‌های آماده‌ی دروس و لغت مختلف (مثل لغتهای تافل) هم داره که می‌تونید – به قیمتی گزاف! – خریداری کنید. من نظرم اینه که خودتون بنویسید، چون یک مرحله‌ی یادگیری همین نوشتن برگه‌هاست.
جعبه لایتنر چیست
جعبه لايتنر چيست؟
لایتنر روشی است مطمئن و دقیق برای انتقال اطلاعات از حافظه کوتاه مدت به حافظه بلند مدت . در این روش بجای کنترل هر روزه کل مطالب ( که با زیاد شدن مطالب، کاری غیر ممکن و یا بسیار وقت گیر می باشد) فقط با چند بار تکرار یک مطلب در طی یک دوره ، روند آموزش به پایان می رسد و آن لغت برای همیشه در ذهن نقش می بندد. نکته حائز اهمیت در این روش آن است که یادگیری( حفظ کردن مطلب ) فقط و فقط یک بار در روز اول انجام شده و در نوبت هاي بعدی فقط مربوط به تکرار آن می باشد.
با استفاده از روش لایتنر شما كلمه اي را مشاهده مي كنيد و سپس معني آن را در ذهنتان مجسم مي كنيد. سپس پاسخ را مشاهده نمود
برچسب‌ها:
چگونه انگلیسی صحبت کنیم؟
بسیاری از زبان آموزان انگلیسی در حسرت یافتن پاسخ صحیح به این سؤال که چگونه می توانند انگلیسی صحبت کنند می سوزند. البته اهداف دیگری نیز از آموزش زبان انگلیسی وجود دارند ولی یادگیری مکالمه می تواند به شما کمک کند تا با دیگران ارتباط برقرار کنید و نمرات بهتری را در آزمون های و دیگر تست ها بدست آورید. اگر می خواهید نحوه مکالمه زبان انگلیسی ا بیاموزید باید یک طرح عملی داشته بشید. این TOEFL, IELTS, GRE, MCHEو
بخش به شما این امکان را می دهد که نحوه یادگیری مکالمه زبان انگلیسی را بیاموزید. اگر پیشتر به مکالمه زبان انگلیسی آشنایی دارید، این راهنما به شما کمک می کند تا سریع تر مهارت گفتاری خود را رشد دهید.
1. نوع یادگیری خود را مشخص کنید
زمانی که اقدام به یادگیری زبان انگلیسی می کنید باید بدانید که به جهت یادگیری در کدام گروه قرار می گیرید. از خود سؤالاتی مانند اینها بپرسید: چرا می خواهم انگلیسی صحبت کنم؟ آیا برای بهبود وضعیت شغلی ام باید زبان یاد بگیرم؟ آیا زبان انگلیسی را برای سرگرمی می خواهم یا برنامه ای جدی تر در سر دارم؟ در اینجا راهنمایی عالی “انواع یادگیرنده ها” وجود دارد که می تواند شما را در پاسخ به این سؤال یاری کند.
2. درک درستی از اهداف خود داشته باشید
زمانی که بدانید به کدام یک از گروه های یادگیرنده ها تعلق دارید ، می توانید در نتشخیص اهداف خود دید بازتری داشته باشید. لیست کاملی از کارهایی که می خواهید با زبان خود انجام دهید تهیه کنید. ایا می خواهید ظرف 2 سال به روانی انگلیسی صحبت کنید؟ ایا می خواهید در حد سفارش غذا در یک رستوران خارجی صحبت کنید؟ تعیین هدف می تواند مسیر شما را در مورد یادگیری زبان انگلیسی هموار سازد.
3. سطح توانی خود را تعیین کنید
قبل از شروع باید بدانید که از کجا باید شروع کنید. پاسخ دادن به یک تست تعیین سطح می تواند به شما کمک کند که سطح خود را بشناسید و این خود نقطه شروع مناسبی است برای یادگیری زبان انگلسی به شیوه مناسب. البته شما در این گذر نه تنها نحوه صحبت انگلیسی، بلکه نحوه خواندن، نوشتن و استفاده از زبان در بسیاری از شرایط آشنا خواهید شد. تست هایی که در ادامه برای شما تعیین شده است می توانند سطح زبان شما را تعیین کنند. اگر امتیاز شمادر هر یک از تست ها کمتر از 60% بود آموزش خود را از آن سطح آغاز کنید.
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تست های سطح ابتدایی 1 2
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تست های سطح متوسط
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تست های سطح پیشرفته
4. تعیین استراتژی یادگیری
حالا که در مورد اهداف یادگیری زبان انگلیسی، شیوه یادگیری و سطح توانش زبانی خود اطلاعاتی را بدست آورده اید، زمان آن رسیده است که به استراتژی های یادگیری زبان انگلیسی بپردازید. پاسخ صحیح به این سؤال که چگونه می توان انگلیسی صحبت کرد این است که شما باید تا حد ممکن تناوب صحبت خود را بالا ببرید و در هر شرایط موجود صحبت کنید. البته مسئله کمی پیچیده تر از این است. اول با نوع استراتژی که می خواهید در پیش بگیرید شروع کنید. آیا می خواهید به تنهایی انگلیسی مطالعه کنید؟ آیا می خواهید کلاس بروید؟ چقدر زمان برای یادگیری زبان وقت در نظر گرفته اید؟ چقدر بودجه مالی برای یادگیری زبان انگلیسی در نظر گرفته اید؟ به این سؤالات پاسخ دهید تا استراتژی شما مشخص شود.
5. برنامه ای برای یادگیری گرامر زبان انگلیسی در نظر بگیرید
اگر می خواهید نحوه مکالمه به زبان انگلیسی را یاد بگیرید، باید نحوه بکارگیری گرامر زبان انگلیسی را نیز بیاموزید. در اینجا پنج نکته برتر به شما معرفی می شوند تا بتوانید با گرامر خوب صحبت کنید.
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گرامر را در متن بیاموزید. تمرین هایی را انجام دهید که شما را وادار می کنند زمان افعال را در متن های کوتاه نوشتاری یا شنیداری پیدا کنید.
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در زمانی که صرف یادگیری چگونه صحبت کردن می کنید باید عضلات را به کار بگیرید! تمرین های گرامری خود راباصدای بلند بخوانید تا به شما کمک کنند گرامر صحیح را در قالب مکالمه یاد بگیرید.
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زیاد تمرین گرامری انجام ندهید! درک گرامر به معنای آن نیست که شما می توانید صحبت کنید. بین گرامر و دیگر فعایت های یادگیری تعادل ایجاد کنید.
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هر روز 10 دقیقه صرف انجام تمرین های گرامری کنید. بهتر است هرروز کمی تمرین کنید تا مقدار زیاد و یک بار در هفته.
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از مطالبی که در این سایت استفاده شده اند و جنبه خودآموز دارند استفاده کنید. منابع گرامری بسیاری هستند که می توانید از آنها استفاده کنید.
6. یک برنامه برای یادگیری مهارت های گفتاری خود در نظر بگیرید
اگر می خواهید مکالمه انگلیسی را بیاموزید، باید برنامه روزانه برای مکالمه انگلیسی در نظر بگیرید. در اینجا 5 نکته به شما آموزش می دهم که به شما اطمینان می دهد که به شما اطمینان می دهند هر روز انگلیسی – البته نه فقط یادگیری آن – صحبت کنید.
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تمامی تمرین ها را با صدای خود انجام دهید. تمرین های گرامری، تمرین های خواندن و درک مطلب همگی باید با صدای بلند انجام شوند.
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با خود صحبت کنید. نگران این نباشید که ممکن است کسی صدای شما را بشنود. هر از گاهی با صدای بلند با خود با صدای بلند صحبت کنید.
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هر روز موضوعی را برای خود تعیین کنید و به مدت یک دقیقه در مورد آن با خود صحبت کنید.
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از تمرین های آنلاین استفاده کنید و با استفاده از برخی از برنامه ها مانند Yahoo Messenger و Skypeانگلیسی صحبت کنید. در اینجا برخی از صفحات تمرین مکالمه انگلیسی قرار داده شده اند که نقطه شروع مناسبی به شمار می آیند.
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تا می توانید اشتباه کنید! از اشتباه نهراسید. اشتباهات بسیاری انجام دهید و گاه و بیگاه! تنها زمانی می توانید اشتباهات خود را تصحیح کنید که اشتباهی به وقوع پیوسته باشد.
7. برنامه ای برای یادگیری کلمات زبان انگلیسی برای خود در نظر بگیرید
برای اینکه از قابلیت خود در مورد مکالمه زبان انگلیسی در مورد طیف وسیعی از موضوعات اطمینان حاصل کنید باید لغات بسیاری در زمینه های مختلف بیاموزید. در اینجا برخی پیشنهادها و منابع برای شما معرفی شده اند تا نقطه شروع مناسبی را برای شما رقم بزنند.
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درختچه های لغوی بسازید. درختچه های لغوی و تمرین های سرگرم کننده دیگر می توانند به شما کمک کنند که لغت ها را در گروه های معنایی با سرعت بیشتری یاد بگیرید.
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سیر یادگیری و لیست لغت هایی را که یاد گرفته اید در یک پوشه ثبت کنید.
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از لغتنامه های تصویری استفاده کنید که به شما امکان یادگیری لغات بیشتری را در زمان اندک تری می دهند.
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لغت هایی را در مورد حیطه های مورد علاقه تان بیاموزید. نیازی به یادگیری لغت هایی که هیچ علاقه ای به آنها ندارید وجود ندارد.
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هر روز تعداد اندکی لغت فرا بگیرید. سعی کنید هر روز تنها دو یا سه لغت و اصطلاح فرا بگیرید.
8. برنامه ای برای یادگیری خواندن متن و نوشتن در نظر بگیرید
اگر طرفدار مکالمه زبان انگلیسی هستید، به نظر می رسد که خواندن و درک مطلب و نوشتن نخواهند توانستنگرانی ای در شما برانگیزانند. با این وجود خواندن و نوشتن هم نمی توانند خالی از لطف باشند.
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سعی کنید قابلیت های خواندن خود در زبان مادریتان را به کار بگیرید. شما نیازی به درک کامل تمامی کلمات ندارید.
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سعی کنید نوشتن متون کوتاه در بلاگ ها و یا نوشتن نظرات خود برای سایت های یادگیری زبان انگلیسی راآغاز کنید. مخاطبان این سایت توقع بروز اشتباه در این سایت ها را دارند، پس راه برای شما همواره باز است.
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برای لذت بردن از مطالعه زبان انگلیسی مطالبی را بخوانید. مطلب مورد علاقه خود را انتخاب کنید و در مورد آن مطالعه کنید.
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در هنگام نوشتن از زبان مادری تان ترجمه نکنید. سعی کنید مطالب ساده و بی واسطه بنویسید. سعی کنید به انگلیسی فکر کنید.
9. برنامه ای برای یادگیری تلفظ زبان انگلیسی بیاموزید
یادگیری یک زبان دیگر به معنی تلفظ صحیح کلمات در آن زبان نیز هست.
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در مورد موسیقی زبان مطالبی را بیاموزید و سعی کنید تأثیر آن را در مهارت تلفظ کلمات درک کنید.
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در مورد اشتباهاتی که همزبانان شما در زبان انگلیسی مرتکب می شوند بیاموزید.
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به فکر استفاده از یک برنامه تلفظ برای تمرین و یادگیری تلفظ صحیح کلمات باشید.
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لغت نامه ای که در آن از سیستم آوانگاری درست و دقیقی استفاده شده است تهیه کنید.
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از دهان خود استفاده کنید! در زمان تمرین زبان با صدای بلند کلمات را ادا کنید. تمرین زیاد می تواند تلفظ شما را بهبود بخشد.
10. موقعیت های را برای مکالمه برای خود خلق کنید
استفاده زیاد از زبان انگلیسی کلید یادگیری مکالمه زبان انگلیسی است. به جامعه های انگلیسی یادگیری مانندEnglishCafe یا iTalk ملحق شوید. در این جامعه های مجازی شما می توانید با skype با افراد دیگر مکالمه کنید. به کلوپ های محلی که بر مکالمه زبان انگلیسی تمرکز دارند ملحق شوید برای کمک کردن به توریست ها پیش دستی کنید. اگر دوستی دارید که انگلیسی یاد می گیرد، روزی 30 دقیقه را برای مکالمه انگلیسی با یکدیگر در نظر بگیرید.در این زمینه خلاق باشید و موقعیت های جدیدی برای خود ایجاد کنید.
چند نکته
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صبور باشی و زمان کافی برای آموزش انگلیسی در نظر بگیرید. در نظر داشته باشید که زمان کافی برای خود در نظر بگیرید و به خودتان برسید!
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از هر دسته از تمرین ها در هر روز انجام دهید ولی کارهای کسل کننده را بیشتر از ده تا پانزده دقیقه انجام ندهید.اگر می خواهید مهارت شنیداری را تمرین کنید تنها پانزده دقیقه تمرین کنید نه یک ساعت. اگر هدف گرامر استبیش از ده دقیقه به آن اختصاص ندهید.
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در زمان تمرین از اشتباه کردن نهراسید. بهترین راه برای یادگیری یاد گرفتن از اشتباهات خودتان است.
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یاد بگیرید در مورد موضوعات مورد علاقه خود صحبت کنید. اگر موضوع صحبت خود را دوست داشته باشید راحت تر از عهده انجام آن بر خواهید آمد.
به چه چیزهایی نیاز دارید؟
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صبر
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زمان
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اشتباه کردن!
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دوستانی که بتوانید باآنها مکالمه کنید
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منابع انگلیسی بصورت کتاب و مطالب اینترنتی
برچسب‌ها:
صحبت کردن به انگلیسی آن هم مانند یک شخص زبان اصلی بسیار ساده است.هر کسی که بخواهد و اراده کند می تواند؛شما هم می توانید به سادگی تصمیم بگیرید و به این هدف مهم دست یابید!اگر فکر می کنید که هیچ گاه نمی شود به راحتی انگلیسی صحبت کنید باید همین جا اعلام کنم که سخت در اشتباه اید! در ادامه نوشته با ما همراه باشید تا به ارائه و بررسی اصول اولیه جهت سهولت در صحبت کردن بپردازیم.
نکته اول
هرگز مایوس نباشید و فکر اینکه نمی توانید به خوبی انگلیسی صحبت کنید را به کلی از ذهنتان بیرون کنید. اگر بقیه توانستند پس شما هم می توانید! بعضی ها تسلط به این مهارت را برای خود دست نیافتنی می بینند و فکر می کنند که قرار است واقعا کار به خصوصی انجام دهند! هرگز این طور فکر نکنید! این هم مهارتیست مثل سایر مهارت ها. این جمله را همیشه به خاطر داشته باشید که”تمرین کلید تسلط بر هر مهارتیست”حال این مهارت می خواهد رانندگی باشد یا یادگیری یک زبان یا هر مهارت دیگری!
نکته دوم
اگر فکر می کنید که آدم باهوشی نیستید اصلا مهم نیست! زیرا مهارت در صحبت کردن به هیچ عنوان ربطی به هوش و استعداد فرد ندارد. لذا این فکر مزاحم را هم از ذهنتان دور کنید!
انگلیسی را مثل یک کودک بیاموزید
وقتی یک کودک ۳ ساله می تواند صحبت کند پس شما هم باید بتوانید! خوب مطمئنا یک کودک ۳ ساله از هوش بالایی برخوردار نیست پس در تایید نکته قبلی خیالتان باید از این بابت راحت باشد!
راز موفقیت بچه ها در صحبت کردن
بچه ها وقتی زبان یاد می گیرند مسلما هیچ وقت به این فکر نمی کنند که در حال یادگیری یک زبان هستند.بلکه آن ها کار خودشان را انجام می دهند و با تلاش سعی دارند تا به این مهارت دست پیدا کنند و همین دلیل موفقیت شان است. افراد بزرگسالان همواره به این می اندیشند که در حال یادگیری یک زبان هستند و هنوز موفق نشده اند! این حس بد و منفی آن ها را سر خورده و دلسرد می کند.
نتیجه
- هیچ وقت به این فکر نکنید که در حال یادگیری زبان هستید بلکه به آن به دید بازی و سرگرمی نگاه کنید و از آن لذت ببرید!
- یادگیری زبان همواره امری زمان بر بوده و هست.لذا عجول نباشید و صبر کنید! سعی نکنید تا سه روزه به یک انگلیسی دان اصیل تبدیل شوید!!
- همواره ادامه دهید و مایوس نشوید. مهم این است که با هدف و انگیزه به کارتان ادامه دهید و دست از کار نکشید. به خاطر داشته باشید که”سختی ها فانی اند ولی سخت کوشان باقی اند!”
برچسب‌ها:
تبادل لینک هوشمند